./i-vu'v  vt. 


OUTLINES 


GEOLOGY: 

INTENDED  AS  A  POPULAR  TREATISE  ON  THE 

MOST  INTERESTING  PARTS  OF  THE  SCIENCE. 

TOQETH3R  ^TITH  AN  EXAMINATION  OP  THE  Q.C7E3TIO.V, 

WHETHER  THE  DAYS  OF  CREATION  WERE 
INDEFINITE   PERIODS. 

DESIGNED  FOR  THE  USE  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  GENERAL  READERS. 


BY  J.   L.  COMSTOCK,  M.  D. 

Author  of  an  Introduction  to  Mineralo£y*Elements  of  Chemistry,  A  System  of 
Natural  Philosophy,  and  Introduction  to  Botany. 


THIRD  EDITION. 


NEW  YORK . 
ROBINSON,    PRATT,    &   CO. 

63  WALL    STREET. 
1838. 


ENTERED, 
According  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1834,  by 

J.  L.  COMSTOCK,  M.  D. 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Connecticut 


BTEREOT7PED  BY  V.  P.  HIPLKT, 


PREFACE. 


GEOLOGY  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  impress  the  mind  of  the  student 
with  ideas  of  the  wisdom  and  power  of  the  Creator,  and  to  lead  him 
to  the  acknowledgment  of  a  Great  First  Cause.  In  addition  to  this, 
it  is  applicable  to  various,  and  highly  important  practical  purposes. 
Millions  have  bsen  expended  in  boring  for  salt,  in  mining  for  coal, 
and  in  searching  for  metallic  veins,  when  even  a  slight  knowledge 
of  the  nature  and  geological  positions  of  rocks,  as  indicated  by  ex- 
ternal appearances,  would  have  shown  that  such  explorations  would 
be  fruitless. 

In  the  sinking  of  wells,  in  excavations  for  canals,  roads,  and  build- 
ings, and  for  a  great  variety  of  other  purposes  connected  with  both 
civil  and  military  engineering,  a  knowledge  of  geology  is  often  of 
the  highest  importance  to  the  contractor,  and  not  less  so  to  the  con- 
tracting party. 

Is  it  not  time,  then,  that  we  should  begin  the  study  of  the  earth 
on  which  we  live,  and  from  which,  in  common  with  all  terrene 
animals,  we  derive  our  subsistence  1  And  can  it  be  doubted,  that 
the  knowledge  to  be  derived  from  this  source,  is  fully  as  important 
to  the  youth  of  this  great  and  unexplored  country,  as  that  pertain- 
ing to  the  names  and  sources  of  rivers,  the  extent  and  situation  of 
seas,  and  the  boundaries  of  nations,  states,  and  towns,  which  our 
scholars  spend  so  much  time  in  committing  to  memory  1 

To  supply  the  deficiency  of  books  on  this  subjec't,  adapted  to 
general  readers  and  to  our  higher  schools,  is  the  object  of  this  work. 

Possibly  the  clergy  of  our  country,  who  have  no  time  to  read  ex- 
tensive geological  works,  and  thus  to  collect  the  scattered  facts 
which  show  the  coincidence  and  connexion  between  the  Scriptures 
and  geology,  may  find  this  little  volume  an  acceptable  assistance. 
At  the  present  day,  when  infidelity  looks  almost  exclusively  among 
the  higher  departments  of  science  for  aid,  ought  not  theologians,  at 
least,  to  understand  the  ground  of  such  hopes,  in  order  to  make  good 
their  own  defence  1  An  experienced  soldier  always  looks  well  to 
the  strength  of  his  outposts. 

With  respect  to  the  matter  of  the  following  treatise,  it  is  perhaps 
sufficient  to  say,  that  almost  every  recent  systematic  geological 
writer  in  the  English  language,  as  well  as  many  periodical  publi- 
cations, have  been  consulted.  The  plan  has  been  to  treat  of  the 
most  interesting  and  important  parts  of  the  science,  as  a  whole,  and 
hence  particular  notices  on  American  geology  have  been  omitted, 
only  in  conformity  to  this  design. 

To  those  acquainted  with  the  present  state  of  geology,  it  hardly 
need  be  said,  that  to  have  prepared  a  volume  which  should  embrace 
and  unite  the  opinions  of  even  the  most  recent  and  respectable 
authors  on  many  subjects  contained  within  its  outlines,  would  hav» 


4  PREFACE. 

been  impossible :  and  to  those  who  are  not  acquainted  with  this 
science,  it  may  be  proper  to  state,  that  from  the  very  nature  of  many 
of  its  subjects,  there  must  always  exist  a  variety  of  theories  to  ac- 
count for  the  same  facts,  until  more  is  known  concerning  them. 
This  arises  from  the  circumstance,  that  the  causes  of  many  phe- 
nomena which  the  earth  exhibits,  have  long  since  ceased,  and  there- 
fore these  causes  must  remain  matters  of  conjecture.  Thus  coal  is 
found  in  the  earth  in  great  abundance,  but  none  is  formed  at  the 
present  day,  and  therefore  the  causes  which  have  produced  this 
substance,  or'at  least  the  circumstances  under  which  it  was  formed, 
remain  a  subject  of  theory. 

In  other  instances,  the  causes  still  exist,  but  their  effects  only  are 
apparent,  as  in  the  case  of  volcanoes  and  earthquakes. 

In  these  instances,  the  leading  facts  are  admitted  by  all,  but  men 
have  chosen  to  account  for  them  in  different  ways,  and  thus  differ- 
ent theories  have  been  proposed,  to  solve  the  same  phenomena. 

Again,  in  many  things  connected  with  the  natural  history  of  the 
earth,  the  chief  circumstance  in  question  may  rest  on  a  variety  of 
collateral  facts,  of  the  bearing  of  which  geologists  differ  in  opinion. 
Thus  fossil  plants,  belonging  to  orders  which  at  present  only  grow 
in  tropical  climates,  and  the  remains  of  animals  whose  species  are 
now  found  only  in  the  hottest  regions  of  the  earth,  occur  in  many 
parts  of  Europe,  and  even  in  frozen  Siberia.  Hence  some  have 
supposed  that  the  climate  of  Europe  has  changed  since  the  deposi- 
tion of  these  remains,  and  that  the  plants  grew,  and  the  animals 
lived,  where  their  relics  are  now  found :  while  others,  reasoning 
from  what  they  consider  conflicting  facts,  maintain  that  no  change 
of  climate  has'taken  place,  and  that  the  main  circumstance  may  be 
accounted  for,  by  supposing  that  these  remains  were  transported 
from  hot  climates. 

At  the  present  day,  geological  writers  profess  to  maintain  their 
theories  only  by  facts,  and  fair  deductions  from  them,  and  thus  in- 
vestigations are  constantly  going  on,  and  new  facts  are  perpetually 
accumulating,  so  that  ultimately  it  maybe  expected  that  this  science 
will  consist  of  deductions  from  truths  which  are  generally  admitted. 
But  in  its  progress  towards  such  a  state,  hypothetical  reasonings, 
under  the  restrictions  which  the  present  advanced  state  of  the 
sciences  impose,  are  not  to  be  deprecated,  since  this  is  often  almost 
the  only  means  by  which  men  are  stimulated  to  that  thorough  in- 
vestigation of  facts  and  phenomena,  which  characterizes  the  prac- 
tical geologists  of  the  present  day. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  understood,  that  geology  consists  chiefly 
of  the  conflicting  opinions  of  different  authorities.  On  the  contrary, 
though  of  so  recent  an  origin,  it  already  embraces  numerous  series 
of  highly  interesting,  curious,  and  instructive  facts,  many  of  which 
seem  destined  to  be  of  great  importance  to  mankind ;  while  others 
are  calculated  to  excite  profound  considerations.  • 

An  examination  of  the  earth  shows  that  its  crust  has  undergone 
great,  and  sometimes  repeated  mutations.  The  strata  which  once 
corresponded,  are  now  completely  dislocated,  one  portion  being 
thrown  up,  broken,  and  distorted,  while  the  other  is  depressed,  and 
equally  mutilated  ;  the  whole  indicating  the  effects  of  an  enormous 
force  acting  from  beneath,  and  at  an  unknown  depth. 

Every  part  of  the  earth,  except  the  most  recent  deposites,  present 
similar  phenomena,  more  or  less  striking,  and  in  this  manner  the 
original  disposition  and  direction  of  all  ancient  stratified  rocks 


PREFACE.  5 

have  become  changed.  In  some  instances,  the  changes  have  been 
so  great,  as  to  repeat  the  original  number  of  strata  many  times. 
In  one  locality,  this  effect  has  been  such  as  to  produce  from  30  to 
40,000  strata,  where  the  original  number  was  only  four. 

We  shall  find  that  these  dislocations  are  marks  of  wisdom  and 
beneficence,  as  well  as  of  power;  and  that  this  earth  would  have 
been  but  poorly  fitted  for  the  residence  and  comfort  of  man,  had 
thesa  s:rata  remained  in  a  horizontal  position. 

The  organic  remains  of  plants  and  animals,  the  relics  of  a  former 
world,  are  not  only  objects  of  great  curiosity,  but  afford  to  the  mind 
subjects  of  the  deepest  contemplation.  Here  we  have  before  us  the 
remains  of  vegetables  and  animals  which  covered  and  inhabited 
the  earth  thousands  of  years  ago ;  and  some  of  them  are  so  unlike 
any  existing  species,  that  no  living  analogues  are  anywhere  to  be 
found. 

Other  remains  prove  that  monstrous  reptiles,  sixty  or  seventy 
feet  in  length,  once  crawled  among  canes  and  rushes,  which  emula- 
ted in  height  the  forests  of  the  present  day  ;  while  huge  quadrupeds, 
of  unknown  tribes,  inhabited  the  higher  grounds,  where  they 
reigned  lords  of  the  creation. 

Probably  these  are  the  remains  of  animals  which  were  known  to 
Noah  and  his  family;  and  possibly  some  of  them  belonged  to  the 
identical  beasts  to  which  Adam  gave  names. 

Thus  has  the  earth  preserved,  for  our  examination  and  instruc- 
tion, natural  bodies  of  the  earliest  growth,  and  with  which  no 
works  of  art  can  compare  in  antiquity.  Even  the  re:nains  of 
Babylon  and  Egypt  are  infants  in  age,  when  compared  with  these 
things. 

With  respect  to  what  has  been  advanced  on  the  subject  of  the 
days  of  creation,  we  are  aware  that  the  opinions  of  several  Ameri- 
can, and  some  foreign  geologists  of  high  standing,  are  against  us. 
But  having  examined  several  learned  expositions  of  the  original 
text,  both  for  and  against  the  admissibility  of  a  different  translation 
from  the  common  one,  we  are  fully  satisfied  that  the  word  rendered 
day,  connected  as  it  is  in  the  his  ory  of  the  creation,  admits  of  no 
other  meaning.  This,  if  so,  ought  for  ever  to  settle  the  question  ; 
for  the  necessity,  which  geology,  or  the  Hindoo  tables,  or  the  Egyp- 
tian Zodiacs,  or  the  strata  at  Etna,  seem  to  present,  ought  never 
for  a  moment  to  be  admitted  in  the  mind  of  a  believer,  as  an  excuse 
for  misinterpreting  the  plainly  intended  meaning  of  the  Scriptures. 
Both  the  Indian  tables  and  the  Egyptian  Zodiacs  presented  much 
stronger  apparent  proofs  against  the  veracity  of  Moses,  than  any 
which  geology  now  opposes  to  his  literal  meaning. 

We  have  only  to  add  on  this  subject,  that  when  it  can  be  shown, 
that  the  roots  in  philology  admit  of  a  different  translation,  and  the 
substrata  in  geology  require  it,  we  will  cheerfully  relinquish  the 
opinion  here  attempted  to  be  maintained. 


PREFACE 


SECOND    EDITION. 


IN  the  preface  to  the  former  edition  of  this  work,  it  was  stated 
that  the  plan  being  to  treat  of  the  most  important  and  interesting 
parts  of  the  science,  articles  of  American  geology  had  been  admit- 
ted only  so  far  as  might  be  necessary  in  conformity  to  this  design. 
The  author  has,  however,  become  convinced  by  the  communica- 
tions of  Professors  of  Colleges,  and  the  Principals  of  other  institu- 
tions where  the  work  has  been  introduced,  that  further  illustrations 
from  the  geology  of  our  own  country  would  make  the  work  more 
acceptable  as  a  class-book ;  and  in  conformity  to  such  hints,  the 
present  edition  will  be  found  much  improved  in  this  respect.  For 
these  notices  the  author  is  indebted  to  a  variety  of  American  publi- 
cations, but  more  particularly  to  Professor  Hitchcock's  "  Report 
on  the  Geology  of  Massachusetts,"  and  Dr.  Hildreth's  Communi- 
cation on  the  Valley  of  the  Ohio,  contained  in  the  59th  No.  of  Silli- 
man's  Journal. 

The  article  on  the  length  of  the  creative  days  has  also  been  par- 
ticularly examined,  most  of  it  re-written,  and  several  new  objections 
answered.  On  this  part  of  his  work,  the  author  takes  pleasure  in 
acknowledging  the  assistance  of  the  Rev.  S.  F.  Jarvis,  D.  D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  languages  and  literature  in  Washington  Col- 
_ege.  Dr.  Jarvis  has  not  only  had  the  kindness  to  collate  many 
passages  of  the  Hebrew  text  with  reference  to  the  meaning  of  the 
word  yarn,  but  also  to  translate  for  his  use  the  theory  of  Paradisi, 
an  abstract  of  which  he  has  given  in  this  work. 

Besides  these  additions,  the  author  has  made  many  others,  as  the 
subjects  seemed  to  require,  the  whole  amounting  to  nearly  forty 
pages,  with  twelve  new  illustrations  by  wood  cuts. 

It  is  hoped,  therefore,  that  this  edition  will  be  found  much  more 
worthy  of  public  patronage  than  the  former  one. 


HARTFORD,  CT.,  January,  1831 


CONTENTS. 


Adit,  great  Conrsh,         .        .216 
Age  of  the  world  according  to 

Orpheus,  .        .        .14 

Cassander,  .  .  .14 
Aleutian  Islands,  .  .  .124 
American  deluge,  .  .  .46 

coal  fields",        .        .        .195 
Animals,  destroyed  by  the  del- 
uge,     ....        91-93 

extinct,  not  living  species,   247 

by  what  means  did  the  an- 
cient ones  perish,  .        .  249 

fossil  amphibious      .        .  261 
Antiquity  of  Nations,  pretend- 
ed,         93 

Ark,  Noah's,    ....    96 

its  dimensions,  .  .  96 
Atmosphere,  temperature  of  the,  35 
Anthracite,  ....  189 
Arrangement  of  shells  in  strata,  309 

marine  and  fresh  water,  311 
Astronomical  table,  Indian,  370 

Bagnes,  flood  of,      .        .        .    49 
Bakeweil  on  the  fall  of  Mount 

Grenier,        .        .        .        .68 
Baltic,  accumulations  in,         .    59 
whether  this  sea  has  chan- 
ged its  level,          .        .    60 

Basalt, 171 

Basaltic  rocks,         .        .        .170 

veins,         .        .        .        .202 

Basalt,  columnar,    .        .        .  204 

of  Staffa,  .        .        .206 

Baths  of  San  Vignone,    .        .    52 

of  San  Filippo,          .        .    52 

Beds  of  shells  formed  by  sea 

currents,  ....  357 
Bivalves,  .  .  .  .293 
Big-bone  lick,  bones  found 

there, 257 

Bone  caverns,  .  .  .  267 
Boulders,  ...  86,  87 
De  la  Beche  on,  .  .84 
of  Massachusetts,  .  .  88 
large  one  at  East  Lyme,  87 
from  Norway,  .  .  .  86 
of  the  Alps,  .  .  .81 
Dr.  Buckland  on,  .  .80 


Pnee 

Breccia,  osseous,      .        .        .  273 

Brande  on  the  fossils  of  Essex,  242 

on  those  of  Sheppey,        .  243 

Buckland  on  the  Deluge,         .    80 

on  the  Kirkdale  cavern,   .  228 

on  boulders?      .        .        .80 

on  caverns  in  Germany,     268 

Buffon's  Theory,     ...    25 

Burnet's  Theory,     ...    25 

Calamites  approximatus          .  286 

Caverns,  bone,  .  .  .  267 
of  Germany,  .  .  .  269 
of  the  Morea,  .  .  .  279 

Cavern  of  Kirkdale,  .  .228 
bones  found  there,  .  .  229 
Dr.  Buckland  on,  .  228-231 
of  Gaylenreuth,  .  .  269 
of  Durfort,  .  .  .276 
ofKosritz,  .  .  .  278 

Climate,  change  of,  .  .  224 
not  so  hot  as  formerly,  .  226 
causes  which  have  chan- 
ged, .  .  .  .233 
Herschell  on,  .  .  .  233 
change  not  owing  to  astro- 
nomical causes,  .  .  234 
Dr.  Ure  on,  ...  234 
changed  by  the  Deluge,  .  238 
change  sudden,  .  .  237 
Lyell  on,  ...  233 

further  remarks  on,          .  233 

Celcius  on  the  Baltic,      .        .    59 

Central  heat,  ....  135 
Lyell  on,  .  .  .  .133 
Baron  Fourier  on,  .  .  134 
M.  Cordier  on,  .  .  135 
does  exist,  .  .  .136 
its  volcanic  agency,  .  136 
proved  by  the  quantity  of 
lava  from  volcanoes,  .  139 

Chalk, 167 

not  found  in  America,      .  167 

Chinese,  their  false  pretensions 
to  antiquity,      .        .        .93 

Cirknitzersee  lake,  .        .        .281 

Continents  elevated  from  the 


sea,   . 
Coal  fields, 


.  163 


CONTENTS. 


Coal,  beds  of;          .        .       .  1  82 
searching  for,    .        .        .183 
indications  of,    .        .        .194 
minerals  found  with,         .  185 
of  Ohio  186 
anthracite,        .        .        .189 
origin  of  coal,    .        .        .189 
American  coal  fields,        .  195 
wood  coal,        .        .        .190 
marine  fossils  above,        .  191 
Columnar  basalt,    .        .        .  205 
Coral  reefs  and  islands,  .        .    74 
Conchology,    ....  292 

Deluge,  traditions  of,       .        .94 
was  it  universal,        .        .    96 
did  it  destroy  all  the  prim- 
itive animals,         .        .    98 
Buckland  on,    .        .        .     71 
Ureon,      ....    81 
Cuvier  on,         .        .        .90 
valleys  formed  by  the,       .    83 
effects  of  in  Massachusetts,  87 
Denon  on  sand  downs,  .        .     73 
Density  of  the  earth,        .        .     31 
Diluvial  action,        .                 .     88 
Diluvium,         .        .        .        .172 

progress  of,        .        .        .  360 
Creation,  Mosaic  history  of,    .  315 
of  heaven  and  earth,         .315 
days  of,     .        .        .        .  329 
of  the  firmament,     .        .  317 
of  the  sun  and  moon,       .  321 
of  the  creeping  things,      .323 
mammalia  and  man,        .  324 
Faber's  history  of  the,  331-336 

Dicotyledonous  plants,    .        .  320 
Dip,          .        ...        .177 
Dodo,  extinct,          .        .        .  249 
Downs,    72 
De  Luc  on,        ...     73 
Doctrine  of  successive  creations,364 
Durfort,  cavern  of,  .        .        .276 
human  bones  found  in,     .  276 
Dyke,       179 

Crocodile,  fossil,       .        .        .361 
Cryptogamous  plants,          319-321 
Cuvier  on  the  Deluge,     .        .    90 
on  distinguishing  fossil 
bones,    .        .        .        .  245 
on  ancient  species  of  ani- 
mals,    .        .        .        .244 
thinks  there  are  no  new 
species,          .        .        .  243 
his  arrangement  of  fossils,  250 
on  the  bone  caverns  of 
Germany,      .        .        .268 
on  Genesis,       .        .        .  367 

Delambre  on  Indian  astronomy,374 
Days  of  Creation,    .        .        .329 
Faber's  theory  of,     .        .  331 
Silliman's  theory  of,        .  337 

Earth,  density  of  the,      .        .    31 
temperature  of,          .        .     34 
internal  heat  of,        .        .  133 
has  suffered  changes,        .  242 
diameter  of,       31 
newness  of  proved,  .        .     67 
Earthquakes  of  Calabria.        .  117 
effects  on  the  obelisks,      .118 
Prince  of  Scilla  killed  by,    122 
of  Lisbon,          .        .        .  122 
theory  of,           ...  131 
Monte  Kuovo  formed  by,    J25 
elevation  of  Chili  by         .  125 
Aleutian  islands  elevated 
by,         .        .        .        .125 
island  raised  from  the  sea 
by,         ....  124 

indefinite  periods,      .        .  340 
of  common  length,  .        .  345 
Stuart's  criticism  on,        .  346 
Penn's  criticism  on,          .  348 
Ureon,      .       .        .        .366 
Macculloch  on,         .        .  366 
Cuvier  on,         ...  367 
Delta  of  Geneva,     ...    57 
of  the  Rhone,    ...    61 
ofthePo,          ...    63 
of  the  Ganges,          .        .    63 
Deltas  in  lakes,       .                .57 
in  the  sea,         ...    59 
Deluge,  Noah's,      ...    79 
time  of,     .        .        .        .80 
proofs  of,  .        .        .       81,  82 
change  of  climate  by,    90,  234 
animals  destroyed  by,      .    91 
historical  proofs  of,  .       .    92 

Egyptian  Zodiacs,  .        .        .376 
Elephant,  fossil,      .        .     91,  250 
African,     .        .        .        .251 
Siberian,   .        .        .        .252 
bones  found  in  England,    229 
could  now  live  in  Siberia,    232 
found  in  the  ice,        .   236,  253 
with  lone  hair,          .        .  239 
different  species  of,    .        .  250 
his  form  of  jaw,        .        .  251 
Equisetums,  fossil,  .        .        .226 
Eruptions,  volcanic,         .        .  103 
of  Vesuvius,      .        .        .105 
of  Skaptar  Jokul,      .        .113 
of  Etna,     .        .        .        .110 
ofSumbawa,    .        .        .115 
of  Jorullo,         .        .        .114 
Etna,  eruptions  of,  .        .        .110 
beds  of  lava  at,        .       .331 

CONTENTS. 


Etna,  ice  found  on,         .        .  1*1*2 
Extinct  shells,         .        .        .304 

P*«e 

Granite,  veins  ofj     .                   155 
Greenstone,      .        .        .        .171 

encrinite,  ....  304 

protrusion  of,    .        .        .  207 

belemnites,        .        .        .  305 

Gypsum  166 

ammonites,       .        .        .  305 

orthroceratites,          .        .  261 
nautilus,    ....  306 

Haldon  hill,  geology  of,  .        .85 
Hildreth  on  Ohio  coal,    .        .  186 

on  fossils  found  in,   .        .  182 

Faber's  history  of  the  Mosaic 

Heber,  Bishop,  sees  a  hairy 

days  331-336 

elephant,       .        .        .        .239 

on  the  lava  beds,      .        .  184 

Henderson  on  the  geysers,      .    56 

Fall  of  Mount  Grenier,    .        .    68 
of  the  Alps,       ...    69 
Falls  of  Niagara,     ...    42 

Historical  proofs  of  the  deluge,    92 
Hitchcock  on  granite  rocks,    .  153 
ofConway,       .        .        .154 

Fault  179 
Fish,  fossil,  of  Monte  Bolca,    .  309 

the  protrusion  of  green- 
stone,   .        .        .        .157 

Firmament,  creation  ofj  .        .  317 

on  the  diluvium  of  Mas- 

Fossil, definition  of,         .        .  241 

sachusetts,     .        .        .87 

Fossils,  division  of,          .        .241 

History  of  plants,  Mosaic,  and 

particular,         .        .        .  250 

natural,     ....  318 

Fossil  quadrupeds,  .        .        .  250 

Hooke  on  earthquakes,   .        .    20 

amphibia,          .        .        .  261 

Home  on  the  deluge,       .        .    92 

crocodile,  .        .        .        .261 

Human  bones,  fossil,       .        .  275 

elephant,  ....  250 

how  came  they  in  cav- 

mastodon,        .        .        .  255 

erns,       .        .        .        .279 

hippopotamus,  .        .        .  258 

Button's  theory,      .        .        .29 

rhinoceros,        .        .        .  259 

Hyena's  bones  at  Kirkdale,    .  229 

megatherium,   .        .        .  259 

human  bones,  .        .        .  275 

Ichthyosaurus,         .        .       .  264 

plants  and  shells,     .        .  282 

Iguanadon,       ...        .227,  264 

plants,       .        .        .        .284 

Igneous,  oriein  of  granite,        .  151 

shells,        .        .        .        .304 

rocks,  difference  in,  .        .168 

fishes,        .        .        .        .307 
trilobite,    ....  307 

origin  of  trap,    .        .        .200 
Iceland,  geysers  of,          .        .    56 

Ganges,  delta  of,      .        .        .    63 

Ignatius  Paradisi,  his  theory,  .  367 
Indian  astronomical  tables,     .  370 

sediment  from  its  water,       66 

Islands  raised  from  the  sea,     .  124 

Geology,  meaning  of,               .13 

Islands,  coral,  formation  of,    .    74 

objects  of,          ...     13 

coincides  with  sacred  his- 

Jorullo, eruptions  of,        .        .114 

tory,      .        .        .        .313 

Jupiter  Serapis,        .        .        .  127 

Genesis,  geology  coincides 
with  325-328 

Kepler's  theory,       .        .        .26 

what  facts  contradict,       .  349 

Kirkdale,  cave,        .        .        .228 

Geography  of  volcanoes,         .  101 
Geysers                    .        .        .54 

bones  found  in,          .        .  229 
Kosritz,  human  bones  found  in  278 

Gneiss,     148 

Globe,  constitution  of,     .        .31 

Land  and  sea,  proportions  of;      33 

density  of,          ...     31 

Lava,       172 

Great  Lizard  227 

Lake  Cirknitzersee,          .        .  281 

Graywacke,     .        .        .        .160 

Leibnitz's  theory,     .        .        .24 

Granite                                      .  147 

Lias                  ,                            168 

composition  of,         .        .  147 
igneous  origin  of,      .        .151 

Limestone,  primitive,       .        .  150 
secondary,                 .    150,  164 

of  cape  Wrath,          .        .  152 

transition,                  .        .  160 

of  Actwonh,      .        .        .153 

now  forming,            .        .    62 

passing  into  basalt,  .        .  155 

cannon  covered  with,       .    62 

of  Glen  Tilt,      .        .        .157 

formations,               .        .  356 

ef  different  ages,       .       .  157 

Limestone,       .               .       .  316 

10                                              «  CONTENTS. 

Page 

Limestone,  secondary  not  al- 
ways formed  of  shells,         .  362 
Light,  where  did  it  first  ema- 

Noah's ark,      ...           106 
Neptunian  doctrines,       .        .     27 
New  Holland  animals,    .        .  248 

nate,     316 

New  Jersey,  marl  and  sheila 

Lithodomus,    .        .        .        .129 

found  in,               .        .        .87 

Lyell  on  Niaeara  Falls,  .        .  ,44 

Niagara,  account  of,        .        .    43 

on  American  lakes,  .        .     47 

on  change  of  climate,       .233 
on  the  Rhone,  .        .        .61 

Organic  strata,  inferences  from,  352 
Oolite,      .                                   168 

on  the  geysers,          .  '    .  .    56 
on  the  water  of  the  Ganges,  66 

osseous  breccia,         .        .  273 
outcrop,     .        .        .        .177 

on  the  eastern  coasts  of 

outlier,       .        .        .        .179 

England,       .        .        .70 

Paradisi,  Ignatius,  his  theory,    347 

Macculloch  on  the  earth's  di- 
ameter,        .        .                    31 

Parkinson  on  fossil  plants,      .  288 
fishes,        .        .        .        .307 

on  the  destruction  of  rocks,  67 

Pachydermata,         .        .        .  295 

on  coral  islands,        .        .     74 

Parker's  report  on  Pennsylva- 

on petrifactions,        .        .  291 

nia  coal  195 

his  40,000  strata,       .        .  355 

Peat,         197 

on  the  length  of  creative 
days,      .        .        .        .366 

bodies  preserved  in,  .        .198 
Penn,  his  criticism  on  the  word 

Mantel  on  the  saurians,  .        .  263 

day,       348 

on  the  Portland  formation,  338 

Pennsylvania  coal  fields,         .  195 

Marcet,  Dr.,  on  sea  water,      .    33 

Petrifactions,    ....  290 

Mastodon  fossil,      .        .     91,  255 

Phytolithus  varrucosus,  .        .  286 

form  of  his  grinders,          .  256 

caucellatus,        .        .        .  288 

found  in  America,     .        .  357 

Pittsburgh,  coal  used  there,     .  197 

first  account  of,  from  Cot- 
ton Mather,  .        .        .236 

Plastic  nature,          ...     18 
PI  ay  fair  on  Indian  astronomy,  371 

Marine  worms,        .        .        .143 

Plesiosaurus,    .        .        .    264-266 

Megalosaurus,          .    .    .  227,  262 
Megatherium  259 

Plott,  Dr.,  plastic  nature,        .     19 
Plutomans,       .        .        .        .27 

Megalonyx,     .        .        .        .261 
Metallic  veins,          .        .        .  208 

Poles,  how  long  are  the  days 
at  the,  244 

Mineral  veins,          .        .        .207 

Po,  river,  effects  of,          .        .    40 

Mines  and  mariners,        .        .  213 

delta  of  in  the  Adriatic,    .    63 

Mica-slate,       .        .        .        .148 

Pompeii,  destruction  of,  .        .  108 

Monte  Nuova  formed,     .    125-137 

Porphyry,         .        .        .        .150 

Monte  Bolca,  fossil  fish  of,      .  309 

Primary  rocks,         .        .        .147 

Monocotylcdonous  plants,       .  319 

Morea,  caverns  in  the,    .        .  280 

Quadrupeds,  fossil,          .        .  243 

Mosaic  history  of  the  deluge,       79 
coincidence  of  geology 
with,      .        .        .        .  313 

Ravenna,  formerly  a  seaport,      63 
Rafts  of  Red  river,           .        .  192 

and   natural  history  of 

of  New  Orleans,        .        .  240 

plants,   ....  318 

Red  sea,  coral  reefs  of,     .        .    74 

Mosaic  days,    .        .        .        .329 

Remains,  organic,    .        .        .  240 

Faber's  theory  of,    .        .        .331 

division  of,         .        .        .241 

Silliman's  theory  of,         .        .  337 

Rennell  on  the  water  of  the 

indefinite  periods,      .        .  340 

Ganges,    .        .        .        .66 

Stuart's  criticism  on,        .  346 

Rhone,  sea  and  land  shells  at 

Penn's  criticism  on,  .        .  349 

the  mouth  of,    .        .        .    62 

of  common  length,    .        .345 

delta  of,  in  Geneva  lake,  .    57 

Mount  Tom,    ....  205 

in  the  sea,          .        .        .61 

Hoi  yoke,  .        .        .        .205 

Rhinoceros  fossil,     .        .        .     91 

,     Grenier,  fall  of,          .        .    68 

species  of,          ...  259 

Mountain  slides,      .                .    48 

found  on  the  Lena,   .       .  239 

Multivalvea,     .       .       .       .293 

Rock  salt        .       .       .       -  164 

CONTENTS. 


11 


Pace 

Rock  salt,  origin  of,         .        .165 

Signs  and  seasons,  days  and 

Rocks,  distribution  of,      .        .    67 
classification  of,        .    146,  173 

years,         ....  322 
Silliman,  Professor,  his  theory 

primary  147 
transition,          .        .        .  159 

of  the  days  of  creation,         .337 
his  remark  about  the  poles,  345 

secondary,         ...  162 

Slate,  mica,      ....  143 

basaltic,     .         .        .         .171 

clay,           .        .        .    149,  161 

tabular  view  of;         .        .  273 

structure  of,       .        .        .131 

different  ages  of,        .        .  276 
trap,  origin  of,  .        .        .  200 
Romans,  animals  exhibited  by 

Steno,  his  work  on  fossils,      .     19 
Skaptar  Jokul,  eruption  of,      .  113 
Springs,  changes  caused  by,    .    51 

the,    243 

phenomena  of,  .        .        .217 

in  hills,      ....  223 

Sandhills,         ....    72 

silic:ous,     .        .        .        .54 

newness   of   the    earth 

of  St.  Michael,  .        .        .64 

proved  from,          .        .    73 

of  Iceland,         .        .        .54 

Sandstone,       .        .        .        .161 

Stonesfield,  remains  fonnd  in,    264 

Saurians,          .        .        .    262-264 
Sea,  destroying  effects  of,        .    69 

Strata,  arrangement  of  shells  in,  304 
more  ancient  than  Genesis 

on  the  English  coasts,      .    70 

allows,   .        .        .        .351 

mine  under  the,         .        .  215 
level  of  unchanged,  .        .    67 
Sea-water,  composition  of,      .    33 

our  ignorance  concerning,    352 
diluvTal,      .        .        .        .  143 
proofs  of  their  elevation,    .  144 

Secondary  rocks,     .        .        .  162 

tertiary,      ....  170 

limestone,          .        .        .164 

and  stratification,      .        .  177 

Sediment  in  river  water,          .    65 

horizontal,         .        .        .  177 

Shells,      292 

inclined  177 

beds  of,  formed  by  the  sea,  357 
vast  number  of,         .        .  359 

conformable,      .        .        .179 
Stuart,  Professor,  his  criticism 

marine  and  fresh  water,    .  311 

on  the  word  day,          .        .  346 

fossil,         .        .        .        -304 

Sumbawa,  volcano  of,     .        .114 

Encrinite,  ....  304 

Sun  and  moon  appear,     .        .321 

Belemnite,         .        .        .  305 

Ammonites,       .        .        .  305 

Table  of  coincidences  between 

Orthraceratites,         .        .  306 

revelation  and  geology,        .  325 

Nautilus  306 

Tapir,  fossil,     ....    91 

recent,  Bivalve,     .        .        .293 

Temperature  of  the  sea,  .        .    34 

Univalve,  .        .        .    293-295 

of  lakes,     ....    34 

Multivalve,        .        .    293-297 

of  the  earth,       .        .        .34 

Barnicle,    .        .        .        .293 
Mya,          .        .        .        .294 

of  the  atmosphere,    .        .    35 
at  various  heights,     .        .    36 

Cardium,  ....  295 

Tertiary  strata,         .        .        .  170 

Patella,      .        .        .    297-299 
Pholus,      .        .        .        .297 

of  Long  Island,         .        .    87 
Tiger  killed  on  the  Lena,          .  238 

Mytillus,    .        .        .        .293 

Theory  of  volcanoes,        .        .  131 

Ostrea,       ....  293 

of  veins,     .        .        .        .210 

Argonauts,        .        .        .  299 

Button's,  ....  210 

Dentalium,        .        .        .300 

Werner's  210 

Bulla,         .        .        .        .300 

Theory  of  the  earth,  Burnet's,     21 

Voluta,      .        .        .        .301 

Woodward's,     .        .        .22 

Buccinum,         .        .        .  301 

Whiston's,         ...    23 

S  trombus,         .        .        .301 

Leibnitz,    ....    24 

Murex,              .        .        .  302 

Buffon's,    ....    25 

Turbo,                               .  302 

Kepler's,    ....    26 

Conus,       ...           303 

Plutonian,          .        ,        .27 

Helix,        .        .        .        .303 

Werner's,  ....    27 

Nerita,       ....  304 

Button's,  ....    29 

Sienite.     ,                                .  149 

Transition  rocks.     -               .  159 

12                                              CONTENTS. 

Pace 

I'af. 

Trilobite,          .... 
Trap,  origin  of,         ... 
mountains  of,    . 

307 
200 
205 

Volcanoes,  geography  of, 
geological  connexions  of,  . 
proximity  of  to  the  sea,     . 

101 
101! 
103 

veins  of,     . 

202 

of  Iceland, 

112 

Tree,  fossil,  at  Glasgow, 

289 

elevation  of  land  by, 

J  23 

attributed  to  metallic  ele- 

Univalves,       .... 

295 

ments,    . 

131 

Ure,  L»r.,  on  fan  palms,    . 
his  tabular  view  of  rocks, 

227 
173 

attributed  to  ignition  of 
pyrites,  .... 

131 

on  the  megatherium, 

160 

quantity  of  lava  thrown 

on  the  cooling  of  the  del- 
uge,       .... 

234 

from,      . 
Volcano  of  Sumbawa,     . 

138 
115 

on  the  plesiosaurus,  . 

266 

of  Jorullo, 

114 

on  the  creative  days, 

366 

of  Vesuvius, 

103 

Veins,  mineral, 

207 

Water,  effects  of  running, 

33 

theory  of,  . 
of  granite,          . 

210 
152 

transporting  power  of, 
composition  of  sea,    . 

40 
33 

of  basalt  

203 

Wells,  Artesian, 

217 

metallic,    .... 

208 

of  Modena, 

20:1 

of  greenstone,    . 

207 

of  London, 

221 

Vegetable  fossils,  calcareous,   . 
silicious,     .... 
Verona  fossils, 

290 
290 
16 

Wernerian  theory,    . 
White  mountain,  slide  of, 
Whiston's  theory,    . 

27 
43 
23 

Vesuvius  eruptions  of,    . 

105 

wants  more  time, 

314 

destroyed  Pompeii,    . 
Volcanoes  and  earthquakes.    . 

108 
96 

Willey  family  destroyed, 
Woodward's  theory, 

49 
22 

connexion  between, 

137 

elevation  of  land  by, 

125 

Zodiacs,  Egyptian,  . 

376 

OUTLINES  OF  GEOLOGY. 


THE  term  GEOLOGY  comes  from  the  Greek  ge,  the 
" earth,"  and  logos,  "reason,"  or  "discourse,"  and  signi- 
fies the  doctrine,  -or  science  of  the  Earth. 

The  object  of  Geology  is  to  investigate  the  phenomena 
of  the  external  and  internal  parts  of  the  earth — to  inquire 
into  the  modifications  and  changes  which  have  taken  place 
in  the  crust  of  the  globe  since  its  creation,  and  to  account 
for  these  phenomena  in  a  rational  and  scientific  manner. 

This  science,  though  of  very  recent  date,  has  already 
been  the  means  of  offering  to  the  consideration  of  the 
world,  most  important  information,  both  of  a  physical  and 
moral  nature.  Many  important  geological  facts,  it  is  true, 
have  been  long  known ;  but  in  attempting  to  account  for 
them,  theorists  have  indulged  themselves,  until  recently, 
in  the  wildest  imaginations,  and  the  most  unfounded  and 
singular  fancies. 

No  subject  of  importance  has  come  down  to  the  philos- 
ophers of  the  present  age,  so  incumbered  with  false  theo- 
ries, false  reasonings,  and  whimsical  vagaries,  as  Geology. 

It  is  true,  that  a  few  writers  of  early  date  have  reasoned 
correctly  from  the  facts  then  known,  but  the  great  mass  of 
authors  on  this  subject,  seem  to  have  had  no  other  object 
in  view,  but  to  establish  theories  founded  on  plausibilities, 
without  the  aid  of  facts,  or  observations. 

From  the  earliest  antiquity  men  have  been  inquisitive 
in  relation  to  the  origin  and  duration  of  the  earth,  and  the 
mutations  which  it  has  undergone  already,  or  is  likely  to 
undergo  in  future  times.  In  the  absence  of  knowledge 
concerning  the  earth's  structure,  or  of  observations  on  the 
phenomena  which  its  surface  exhibits,  it  was  easier  to 
found  theories,  and  reason  for  the  ignorance  then  existing, 
than  to  undertake  long  excursions  in  order  to  observe  facts, 
from  which  to  reason  correctly,  and  draw  just  conclu- 
sions. 

It  appears,  from  the  remotest  records  of  profane  history, 
that  philosophy  had  assigned  to  this  earth  a  perpetual  se- 
ries of  mutations,  either  by  fire  or  water,  or  by  both, 

\ 


14  GEOLOGICAL  THEORIES. 

Some  supposed  that  this  fair  world  was  occasionally,  or 
periodically  destroyed,  and  again  renovated  under  a  new 
aspect;  and  that  a  new  creation  of  men  and  animals  took 
place  after  every  such  renovation.  The  ancient  Egyp- 
tians believed  that  this  world  was  subject  to  occasional 
deluges  and  conflagrations,  and  that  the  gods  by  such  aw- 
ful judgments  arrested  the  career  of  human  wickedness, 
and  purified  the  habitation  of  man  from  his  own  guilt.  It 
was  supposed  that  all  the  wicked  were  destroyed  by  such 
disasters,  and  that  the  few  who  escaped,  were  the  wise, 
virtuous,  and  happy,  but  that  their  descendants  gradually 
became  wicked,  and  were  in  like  manner  swept  away  by 
the  wrath  of  the  gods. 

Baron  Humboldt  states,  that  after  the  destruction  of  a 
large  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  Cumana,  in  South 
America,  by  an  earthquake,  in  1766.  an  extraordinary  fer- 
tility ensued,  in  consequence  of  the  rain  which  had  accom- 
panied the  convulsion.  On  this  occasion,  says  he,  the 
Indians  celebrated,  in  conformity  to  an  ancient  supersti- 
tion, by  festivals  and  dancing,  the  destruction  of  the  world, 
and  the  approaching  epoch  of  its  renovation. 

The  Egyptian  priests  assigned  certain  periods  of  time 
for  the  destruction  and  renovation  of  the  world.  Accord- 
ing to  Pritchard,  in  his  Egyptian  Mythology,  the  cycles, 
or  periods  of  these  catastrophes,  Avere  variously  estimated. 
Orpheus  supposed  their  duration  to  be  120,000  years  ;  Cas- 
sander,  300,000  years,  &c.  The  Greek  philosophers  and 
stoics  also,  believed  that  the  Earth  was  liable  to  be  afflicted 
by  periodical  catastrophes,  both  by  flood  and  fire.  The 
first,  they  supposed,  destroyed  the  whole  human  race,  and 
annihilated  all  animal  and  vegetable  productions,  and  that 
the  second  dissolved  the  Earth  itself,  but  that  this  was 
afterwards  renovated  or  re-produced. 

The  connection  between  the  doctrine  of  successive  ca- 
tastrophes, and  repeated  deteriorations  in  the  moral  char- 
acter of  the  human  race,  is  more  intimate  and  natural  to 
the  minds  of  men  than  might  at  first  be  imagined.  For 
in  a  rude  state  of  society,  all  great  calamities  are  regarded 
by  the  people  as  the  immediate  judgments  of  Godson  the 
wickedness  of  man.  Thus,  says  Mr.  Lyell,  in  our  own 
times,  the  priests  persuaded  a  large  part  of  the  population 
of  Chili,  and  perhaps  believed  themselves,  that  the  great 
earthquake  of  1822,  which  convulsed  that  country  was 


GEOLOGICAL    THEORIES.  15 

a  sign  of  the  wrath  of  heaven  on  them,  for  the  great  politi- 
cal revolution  just  then  commencing  in  South  America. 

We  may  observe  from  the  accounts  of  travellers,  and 
voyagers  among  barbarous  tribes  in  the  South  Sea  Islands, 
and  in  India,  that  earthquakes  are  almost  universally  con- 
sidered among  these  people  as  judgments  sent  by  a  su- 
preme, or  superior  being,  on  the  wickedness  of  men.  In 
countries  not  subject  to  earthquakes,  as  among  the  Egyp- 
tians, there  are  still  traditions,  or  forebodings  of  conflagra- 
tions, as  we  have  already  seen  ;  and  so  far  as  is  known, 
all  nations  and  tribes,  whether  civilized  or  barbarous,  are 
not  without  their  notions,  however  vague,  of  a  flood  of 
water  which  destroyed  at  least  most  of  the  inhabitants  of 
their  own  country.  Were  it  not  most  probable  that  this 
idea  has  been  handed  down  by  tradition  from  the  time  of 
Noah,  it  would  often  appear  as  though  it  were  an  innate 
moral  sentiment,  designed  by  divine  authority  to  impress 
all  mankind  with  the  fear  of  punitive  justice. 

This  subject  will  come  under  consideration  when  we 
come  to  treat  of  the  Deluge,  and  we  will  only  remark  fur- 
ther at  present,  that  it  is  believed,  neither  the  ancient  phi- 
losophers, nor  modern  barbarians,  ever  entertained  any 
idea  of  the  final  destruction  of  the  Earth,  this  belief  be- 
ing derived  exclusively  from  the  sacred  scriptures.  We 
have  seen  that  several  ancient  nations  held  to  the  doctrine 
of  perpetual  changes,  consisting  of  the  alternate  destruc- 
tion and  renovation  of  the  Earth.  A  similar  doctrine  is 
said  to  have  been  taught  by  the  Gerbanites,  a  sect  of  as- 
tronomers who  flourished  before  the  Christian  era.  They 
believed  that  after  every  period  of  36,000  years,  there 
were  produced  twenty-five  pair  of  every  species  of  ani- 
mals, male  and  female ;  and  that  these  multiply  and  spread 
over  the  face  of  this  lower  world.  But  that  when  a  circu- 
lation of  the  heavenly  orbs  was  completed,  which  is  finish- 
ed in  the  above  named  space  of  time,  then  other  species 
of  animals  are  created,  together  with  new  plants  and  other 
things,  and  so  it  goes  on  for  ever  and  ever. — Oriental 
History. 

It  is  the  light  of  revelation  alone,  to  which  we  are  in- 
debted at  the  present  day,  for  that  knowledge  and  under- 
standing which  places  us  above,  a  belief  in  the  false  doc- 
trines of  heathen  philosophy.  Civilization  and  experience 
never  yet  corrected  the  speculative  philosophy,  or  the 
religious  opinions  of  heathenism. 


16  GEOLOGICAL    THEORIES. 

With  respect  to  the  knowledge  which  the  ancients  pos- 
sessed of  geology,  nothing  of  importance  can  be  said.  The 
Greek  naturalists,  and  the  Arabian  physicians  and  philo- 
sophers have  recorded  some  few  geological  facts,  and  se- 
veral Latin  writers  have  noticed  phenomena  connected 
with  earthquakes  and  volcanoes,  especially  the  rising  of 
islands  out  of  the  sea.  But  the  geologist  will  search  in 
vain,  for  any  facts  or  speculations  concerning  the  history 
of  the  Earth,  worthy  his  notice,  until  the  beginning  of  the 
16th  century ;  when  some  shells  dug  out  of  the  Earth  at 
Verona  in  Italy,  became  the  subject  of  a  controversy  which 
may  be  considered  as  having  laid  the  foundation  of  geolo 
gical  knowledge. 

These  fossil,  or  petrified  shells,  were  found  in  1517,  in 
consequence  of  some  excavations  which  were  made  for 
the  purpose  of  repairing  some  part  of  the  city  of  Verona. 
Such  remains,  it  is  true,  had  long  before  been  discovered 
in  various  places ;  but  no  persons  of  learning  or  judgment 
seem  previously  to  have  troubled  themselves  about  such 
matters.  The  idea  seems  to  have  prevailed,  that  these 
were  the  products  of  what  was  then  termed  "  plastic  na- 
ture ;"  that  is,  that  shells,  and  other  organic  remains,  found 
in  the  solid  earth,  above  the  sea,  were  not  the  exuviae  of 
animals,  but  were  formed  in  the  rocks  where  they  were 
discovered,  and  that  they  were  nothing  more  than  imita- 
tions of  real  shells  and  bones.  This  idea  was  probably 
suggested  for  the  purpose  of  accounting  for  the  appear- 
ance of  shells  in  places  where  it  was  supposed  impossible 
the  sea  should  ever  have  been ;  the  idea  that  the  sea  had 
changed  its  bed,  or  that  the  strata  had  been  elevated  by 
subterranean  forces,  being  then  entirely  unknown.  At 
present,  such  phenomena  are  readily  accounted  for  on  the 
hypothesis  that  many  parts  of  the  earth  have  been  thrown 
up  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea  by  volcanic  action. 

The  shells  at  Verona  furnished  matter  for  much  specu- 
lation, and  many  writers  gave  their  opinions  concerning 
them,  as  well  as  of  other  fossils  found  in  similar  situations. 
Among  these,  one  writer  named  Fracastoro,  gave  it  as  his 
settled  conviction  that  these  and  other  fossil  shells,  where- 
ever  they  were  found,  had  once  belonged  to  living  animals, 
and  at  the  same  time  ridiculed  the  notion  that  the  "  plas- 
tic force"  of  nature  ever  formed  them,  or  any  other  such 
like  productions.  He  also  maintained  that  these  belong- 
ed to  animals  which  grew  and  multiplied  in  the  places 


GEOLOGICAL    THEORIES.  17 

where  they  were  found,  and  that  the  time  of  their  growth 
was  before  Noah's  flood.  All  this  no  doubt  was  true ;  but 
such  new  and  strange  doctrines  raised  against  Fracastoro 
many  bitter  opponents.  His  clear  and  philosophical  views 
were  disregarded,  his  ideas  concerning  plastic  nature  corn- 
batted,  and  the  passions,  as  well  as  the  arguments  and 
learning  of  the  times,  were  arrayed  against  him. 

The  questions  discussed,  were,  first,  whether  fossil  re- 
mains had  ever  belonged  to  living  animals]  and,  second, 
if  this  be  admitted,  whether  all  the  phenomena  concern- 
ing them  can  be  explained  in  consequence  of  the  changes 
which  took  place  by  the  waters  of  Noah's  flood. 

At  this  period,  the  idea  prevailed  in  the  Christian  world, 
that  the  earth  had  undergone  no  considerable  changes,  ex- 
cept those  produced  by  the  general  deluge,  and  that,  there- 
fore, to  attempt  to  shew  that  fossil  remains  had  been  ele- 
vated by  any  other  catastrophe,  would  be  opposing  physi- 
cal appearances  against  Christian  faith.  The  clergy,  on 
this  ground,  entered  warmly  into  this  dispute,  but  at  the 
same  time,  it  appears  that  they  allowed  the  subject  to  be 
canvassad  with  considerable  freedom,  though  the  argu- 
ments on  both  sides  were  often  such  as  would  have  little 
effect  on  the  mind  of  a  geologist  at  the  present  day. 

"  The  system  of  scholastic  dispufnticn"  says  Mr.  Lyell, 
{speaking  on  this  subject,)  "  encouraged  in  the  universi- 
ties of  the  middle  ages,  had  unfortunately  trained  men  to 
habits  of  indefinite  argumentation,  anl 'they  often  preferred 
absurd  and  extravagant  propositions,  because  greater  skill 
an  1  acuteness  was  required  to  maintain  them ;  the  end 
and  object  of  such  intellectual  combats,  being  victory,  and 
not  truth." 

No  theory,  at  that  period,  was  so  whimsical  as  not  to 
find  advocates,  and  as  theories  of  the  earth  were  chiefly 
founded  in  opinions  and  conceits,  rather  than  on  facts  and 
observations,  the  greatest  latitude  was  indulged  in  the  dis- 
play of  ingenuity  and  imagination  in  their  support.  Some 
of  the  inventions  brought  forward  in  the  shape  of  argu- 
ments against  the  doctrine  that  shells  once  belonged  to 
living  animals,  were  indeed  quite  too  ridiculous  to  have 
come  from  any  source  claiming  to  possess  the  power  of 
reasoning.  Thus  one  of  the  oppossrs  of  Fracastoro,  by 
name  Mattioli,  profe  sed  to  account  satisfactorily  for  the 
facts  in  the  case  of  the  shells  at  Verona,  and  other  such 
like  appearances,  by  supposing  that  a  certain  mate ria  pin- 


\ 


18  GEOLOGICAL    THEORIES. 

guis,  or  fatty  matter,  set  into  fermentation  by  the  heat  of 
the  earth,  gave  form  and  substance  to  these  objects.  Ano- 
ther author,  Fallopio,  of  Padua,  Professor,  &c.,  conceived 
that  petrified  shells,  had  been  generated  by  fermentation, 
in  the  places  where  they  were  found,  and  that  in  some  ca- 
ses at  least,  they  had  acquired  their  forms  by  the  "  tumul- 
tuous movements  of  terrestrial  exhalations."  Fallopio 
was  the  renowned  professor  of  anatomy  at  the  celebrated 
school  of  Padua,  and  whose  name,  on  account  of  his  dis- 
coveries, is  seen  in  every  book  of  anatomy,  to  this  day. 
Yet  this  learned  man  taught  his  pupils,  from  the  chair  of 
that  famous  university,  that  certain  elephant's  tusks  which 
were  dug  up  in  some  part  of  Italy,  were  nothing  more 
than  earthy  concretions.  And  agreeably  to  the  same  doc- 
trines, he  intimated,  that  in  his  opinion,  some  ancient  va- 
ses which  were  disinterred  at  Rome,  were  natural  impres- 
sions, formed  by  the  plastic  force  of  nature,  and  that  they 
were  not  the  artificial  works  of  man.  To  the  same  school 
of  reasoners  belonged  Mercati,  who  published  a  book  in 
1574,  containing  some  good  figures  of  fossil  shells,  preserv- 
ed in  the  Pope's  museum  at  Rome.  In  explaining  these  sub- 
jects, the  author  has  no  doubt  that  the  fossils  there  repre- 
sented, are  not  real  shells,  but  mere  stones,  which  had  as- 
sumed the  appearances  of  shells,  "  through  the  influence 
of  the  heavenly  bodies.'11  Olivi,  a  contemporary  author, 
after  much  reasoning  on  these  subjects,  satisfied  himself 
that  fossil  shells,  bones,  and  such  like  things,  were  nothing 
more  than  the  "sports  of  nature." 

In  the  midst  of  those  who  entertained  such  fanciful  no- 
tions, which  indeed  were  characteristic  of  the  age,  there  was 
not  wanting  a  few,  who,  like  Fracastoro,  saw  their  folly 
and  ridiculous  tendency,  and  who  dared  to  assert  the  truth 
on  the  subject  of  fossils.  Among  these  was  Palissy,  a 
Frenchman,  who  in  1580  undertook  to  show  that  shells 
and  bones,  found  in  rocks,  were  really  animal  remains, 
and  that  they  had  been  deposited  there  by  the  universal 
deluge,  &c. 

Although  similar  doctrines,  as  we  have  seen,  had  before 
been  advanced  in  Italy,  it  appears  that  in  France  they 
were  entirely  new,  for  Fontenelle,  who  pronounced  an 
eulogy  on  Palissy  before  the  French  Academy,  fifty  years 
afterwards,  says,  that  he  was  the  first  who  "  dared  to  as- 
sert in  Paris,  that  the  remains  of  testacea  and  fish,  had 
once  belonged  to  marine  animals." — See  Lycll,  vol.  i,  p.  26. 


GEOLOGICAL  THEORIES.  19 

At  about  this  period  a  host  of  writers  of  various  merit, 
arranged  themselves  on  both  sides  of  the  question,  "  whe- 
ther fossils  were  real  organic  substances ;  and  if  so,  how 
they  came  in  the  places  where  they  are  found?"  and  other 
such  like  subjects.  The  consequence  was,  that  these  wri- 
ters began  to  investigate  facts  in  proof  of  their  theories, 
and  from  this  period  may  be  dated  the  commencement 
and  dissemination  of  just  opinions  on  the  subject  of  geolo- 
gy. At  this  time,  Steno,  a  Dane  of  considerable  reputa- 
tion, demonstrated  that  some  fossil  teeth  found  in  Tusca- 
ny, were  those  of  a  species  of  shark  still  living  in  the 
Mediterranean.  Steno's  work  "  On  Gems,  Crystals,  and 
organic  Petrifactions  inclosed  in  solid  Rocks,"  was  pub- 
lished in  1669.  He  also  maintained  that  fossil  vegetables 
had  been  living  plants,*  and  hinted  that  these  remains 
might  indicate  the  distinction  between  marine  and  river 
deposites. 

Steno,  as  well  as  some  other  writers  on  these  subjects, 
although  anxious  to  make  their  doctrines  and  statements 
agree  with  the  Mosaic  history,  alarmed  the  clergy  by  their 
deductions,  and  hence  many  theologians  again  entered  the 
field  of  controversy.  The  points  which  these  reverend 
men  were  chiefly  desirous  of  protecting  from  the  intrusion 
of  philosophy  and  physics,  were,  as  before,  the  Mosaic  his- 
tory, especially  that  of  the  Deluge ;  and  knowing  little  of 
geology,  they  accounted  those  as  nearly  confirmed  here- 
tics, who  could  not  ascribe  all  marine  organic  remains 
found  in  rocks,  to  the  effects  of  the  flood.  We  shall  see 
that  the  Mosaic  history  is,  however,  not  contradicted  by 
supposing  the  shells  in  solid  strata  were  deposited  long 
before  that  catastrophe  occurred. 

In  the  mean  time,  among  popular  writers,  the  old  doc- 
trine that  petrified  shells  had  never  belonged  to  real  ani- 
mals, still  maintained  its  ground.  Even  so  late  as  1677, 
the  famous  Dr.  Plott,  in  his  "  Natural  History  of  Oxford- 
shire," attributes  the  origin  of  fossil  shells  and  fishes  to 
"a  plastic  virtue  latent  in  the  earth." 

Our  limits  will  not  allow  us  to  enlarge  on  this  curious 
subject,  and  to  detail  the  different  opinions  which  were  of- 

*  Fossil  strictly  signifies  any  thing  dug  out  of  the  earth,  but  in 
geology  this  term  is  restricted  to  organic  bodies  which  have  been 
petrified,  or  mineralized  by  long  residence  in  the  ground.  Most 
fossils  are  supposed  to  be  of  antediluvian  origin. 

\ 


20  GEOLOGICAL  THEORIES. 

fered  to  the  world  by  more  of  the  early  geological  writers; 
nor  is  this  perhaps  necessary,  since  the  specimens  already 
given  are  examples  of  the  prevailing  opinions  of  the  times. 
The  light  of  truth,  however,  gradually  followed  the  ac- 
cumulation of  facts,  and  the  doctrine  of  "plastic  nature" 
became  obsolete,  and  ridiculous,  in  proportion  as  men 
reasoned  on  what  they  saw. 

About  this  time,  the  celebrated  Robert  Hooke,  a  name 
well  known  in  the  annals  of  Mathematics  and  Natural  Phi- 
losophy, published  his  "  Discourse  on  Earthquakes." 
Hooke  was  at  least  a  century  before  his  contemporaries, 
on  this  subject,  and  it  appears  that  his  discourse  did  more 
to  induce  others  to  think  and  reason  correctly  on  geologi- 
cal subjects,  than  all  who  had  written  before  him.  He  ridi- 
culed most  effectually,  the  old  notion  that  fossil  shells  were 
mere  stones,  so  shaped  by  nature  as  to  imitate  such  re 
mains,  or  to  use  his  own  words,  "formed  for  no  other  pur- 
pose than  to  play  the  mimic  in  the  mineral  kingdom.'1 
He  maintained,  also,  that  many  species  of  shells  might  be 
extinct,  or  not  now  living;  for  it  was  known  at  that  time, 
that  several  fossils  had  been  found,  of  kinds  not  known  in 
the  living  state. 

At  the  present  day,  many  hundred  species  of  shells  are 
found,  which  are  considered  extinct,  no  living  specimens  of 
the  same  havingany  where  been  discovered.  But  in  the  days 
of  Hooke  this  idea  was  considered  as  improper,  and  even 
heretical,  since,  as  was  claimed,  it  derogated  from  the  wis- 
dom and  power  of  the  Creator,  in  as  much  as  it  was  de- 
claring a  want  of  perpetuity  in  his  works.  But  Hooke,  in 
his  defence,  declared  that  such  an  opinion  was  not  repug'- 
nant  to  holy  writ,  for  the  scriptures  taught  that  there  should 
be  a  final  dissolution  of  all  things,  "and  as  when  that  hap- 
pens, all  the  species  will  be  lost,  why  not  some  beccme 
extinct  at  one  time,  and  some  at  another." 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  early^ writers  of  Geology 
admitted  only  the  two  epochs,  the  creation,  and  the  del- 
uge, as  producing  all  the  appearances  which  the  globe  ex- 
hibits. They  did  not  estimate  the  effects  of  earthquakes, 
running  streams,  and  mountain  slides,  which  in  the  course 
of  ages  have  undoubtedly  produced  very  considerable  chan- 
ges on  the  earth's  surface.  Hence  early  theorists  attempt- 
ed to  make  their  doctrines  agree  with  the  changes  which 
they  attributed  to  the  flood,  but  which  in  many  instances 


GEOLOGICAL    THEORIES.  21 

'.vere  undoubtedly  to.  be  assigned  to  causes  now  in  opera- 
tion. There  was  a  prevailing  timidity  with  respect  to  the 
conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  geological  facts,  lest  they 
should  be  brought  to  contradict  the  Mosaic  history.  But 
this  apparent  want  of  confidence  in  the  triumph  of  the 
scriptures,  was  rather  a  desire  to  keep  from  the  hands  of 
designing  men  any  excuse  to  deny  the  veracity  of  Moses  ; 
and  which  arose  partly  from  want  of  geological  know- 
ledge, and  partly  from  the  religious  character  of  the  times. 

Under  such  circumstances,  geological  theorists  directed 
their  efforts  to  account  for  the  present  actual  appearances 
of  the  earth,  by  allowing  it  a  certain  form  at  the  creation, 
and  then  ascribing  the  changes  since  made,  to  the  No- 
achian  deluge. 

We  will  now  present  the  student  with  a  short  account 
of  several  of  the  most  celebrated  early  systems,  or  theo- 
ries of  the  Earth  ;  at  the  same  time  premising  that  although 
some  of  them  are  from  the  pens  of  those  who  ranked 
among  the  most  talented  men  of  the  age,  still  as  theories 
of  the  earth,  they  are  devoid  of  any  probable  foundation  in 
truth. 

Burners  Theory.  This  was  published  in  1680,*  and 
its  title  is  strikingly  characteristic  of  that  age.  It  runs 
thus.  "  The  Sacred  Theory  of  the  Earth,  containing  an 
account  of  the  original  of  the  Earth,  and  of  all  the  gene- 
ral changes  which  it  has  undergone,  or  is  to  undergo,  till 
the  consumation  of  all  things." 

Burnet  supposed  that  the  primeval  earth,  down  to  the 
time  of  the  flood,  enjoyed  a  perpetual  spring,  and  accounts 
for  this  assumed  fact  by  assuming  that  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic  was  then  coincident  with  the  earth's  axis,  and  that 
the  commotions  during  the  flood  turned  the  earth  into  its 
present  position,  and  thus  produced  the  vicissitudes  of  the 
seasons.  He  endeavours  to  show,  that  the  original  form 
of  the  Earth  as  it  rose  out  of  chaos,  was  so  contrived,  as 
to  contain  within  itself  the  water  necessary  to  produce  the 
deluge.  A  smooth  crust  of  earth  is  made  to  conceal  the 
waters  of  the  abyss  from  the  time  of  the  creation,  but  the 
rain  on  the  outside,  together  with  the  expansion  of  the 

*  Professor  Brande  quotes  Burnet's  book  as  being  published  in 
1736,  but  this  was  probably  a  second  edition. 

\ 


22  GEOLOGICAL    THEORIES. 

waters  beneath  by  heat,  rent  this  crust,  which  falling  down 
into  the  abyss,  caused  the  universal  flood,  and  at  the  same 
time,  by  the  inequality  of  the  fragments,  formed  the  moun- 
tains of  the  earth  as  we  now  see  them. 

"  Not  satisfied  with  these  themes,  he  derived  from  the 
sacred  scriptures,  and  from  heathen  authorities,  prophetic 
views  of  the  future  revolutions  of  the  globe  ;  gave  a  terrific 
description  of  the  final  conflagration,  and  proved  that  a  new 
heaven,  and  a  new  earth  will  rise  out  of  a  second  chaos, 
after  which  will  follow  the  blessed  millenium." 

This  was  called,  and  is  known  to  the  present  day  as  the 
"  Sacred  Theory,"  and  as  absurd,  and  utterly  void  of  all 
foundation  as  it  appears  at  the  present  time,  it  was  receiv- 
ed in  that  day  with  great  applause.  King  Charles  II.  com- 
manded it  to  be  translated  out  of  the  Latin,  in  which  it  was 
written,  into  English.  Addison  eulogised  it  in  Latin  ver- 
ses ;  Steele  praised  it  in  the  Spectator,  and  Warton  ranked 
its  author  among  the  "  first  for  understanding,  judgment, 
imagination  and  memory."  These  encomiums  show  that 
Burnet,  though  ignorant  of  geology,  was  no  ordinary  wri- 
ter, and  that  it  was  his  fine  taste,  and  his  inventive  genius 
that  caught  the  admiration  of  men,  who,  though  judges  of 
these  qualities,  knew  nothing  of  the  science  about  which 
he  wrote. 

Woodwards  Theory.  In  1695,  another  celebrated 
theory  of  the  earth  was  laid  before  the  public.  It  was  en- 
titled "  An  Essay  towards  a  Natural  History  of  the  Earth 
and  Terrestrial  Bodies,  especially  Minerals ;  as  also  of  the 
Sea,  Rivers  and  Springs,  with  an  account  of  the  Univer- 
sal Deluge,  and  of  the  effects  it  had  on  the  Earth.  By 
Dr.  Woodward,  Professor  of  Medicine  at  the  University 
of  Cambridge. 

Professor  Brande  thinks  that  Woodward  must  be  con- 
sidered the  first  geological  theorist  who  professed  to  have 
minutely  examined  the  crust  of  the  earth,  and  to  have 
founded  his  system  on  the  facts  thus  developed.  He 
made  geological  tours  into  different  parts  of  England,  and 
examined  strata,  and  collected  specimens  with  a  view  to 
illustrate  his  intended  work.  He  also  appears  to  have  been 
the  first  who  drew  up  a  series  of  geological  enquiries, 
which  he  sent  to  his  friends  abroad  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 
taining more  extensive  information  on  these  subjects. 

From  these  circumstances  it  might  have  been  expected 


GEOLOGICAL  THEORIES.  23 

that  Woodward's  views  would  have  been  more  sound  and 
enlarged  than  any  of  his  predecessors  or  contemporaries ; 
but  it  was  the  fashion  of  that  day  to  form  theories  rather 
than  to  state  facts,  and  he  fell  into  this  common  error. 

His  theory  supposes  that  the  whole  terrestrial  globe  fell 
in  pieces  and  was  dissolved  by  the  waters  of  the  flood,  and 
that  the  strata  of  the  earth  settled  down  from  this  promis- 
cuous mass.  In  corrobo ration  of  this  view,  he  insisted 
that  marine  bodies,  as  shells,  are  lodged  in  the  strata  ac- 
cording to  the  order  of  gravity,  the  heavier  shells  in  stone, 
and  the  lighter  ones  in  chalk,  and  so  of  the  rest.  But 
this  doctrine  was  immediately  contradicted  by  the  fact, 
that  fossil  bodies  are  often,  however,  mixed,  the  heavy 
with  the  Light,  in  the  same  stratum. 

Although  Woodward's  Theory  is  not  founded  on  any 
grounds,  even  of  plausibility,  still  his  book  contains  many 
important  facts,  and  in  this  respect  was  greatly  in  the  ad- 
vance of  any  of  his  contemporaries. 

Whiston's  Theory.  The  next  famous  work  of  this 
school,  and  equally  characteristic  of  that  period,  was  that 
of  Whiston.  Its  title  was,  "  A  New  Theory  of  the  Earth, 
wherein  the  Creation  of  the  World  in  six  days,  the  Univer- 
sal Deluge,  and  the  General  Conflagration,  as  laid  down  in 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  are  shewn  to  be  perfectly  agreeable 
to  reason  and  philosophy."  Published  in  1696. 

Whiston  was  originally  a  disciple  of  Burnet,  and  adopt- 
ed his  views,  until  Sir  Isaac  Newton  showed  there  was 
no  probability  that  the  earth's  axis  had  changed  its  direc- 
tion, and  consequently  that  the  cause  of  perpetual  spring 
before  the  flood,  as  assumed  by  Burnet,  was  without  foun- 
dation, on  which  this  part  of  his  master's  system  was  relin- 
quished. 

It  seems  to  have  been  a  principal  point  in  all  the  geolo- 
gical theories  of  that  day,  to  account  for  the  general  deluge 
by  the  action  of  some  extraordinary  natural  cause.  In  con- 
formity to  this  fashion,  Whiston  in  the  first  place  shows 
how  this  earth  was  originally  a  comet,  which  being 
modified,  or  re-modelled,  was  brought  into  its  present 
shape.  The  great  heat  which  the  earth  retained,  owing 
to  its  igneous  origin,  inflamed  the  passions  of  the  whole 
antediluvian  race,  so  that  "every  imagination  of  the 
thoughts  of  man's  heart  was  evil  continually."  The  awful 
catastrophe  which  swept  this  wicked  race,  with  the  excep- 

\ 


24  GEOLOGICAL  THEORIES. 

tion  of  Noah  and  his  family,  from  the  face  of  the  earth,  was 
occasioned  by  the  train  of  a  comet,  which  passing  near  the 
earth,  was  condensed  upon  it  in  the  form  of  a  deluge  of 
waters. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  such  a  supposition  is 
without  a  single  circumstance  in  favor  of  its  probability, 
and  therefore,  being  entirely  hypothetical,  is  unworthy  of 
arguments  either  for  or  against  it. 

Whiston  was  the  first  who  proposed  that  the  first  book 
of  Genesis  should  be  interpreted  differently  from  its  ordina- 
ry acceptation,  so  that  it  should  not  be  heretical  to  believe 
that  the  earth  had  existed  for  an  indefinite  period  before 
the  creation  of  animals,  and  man.  He  had  the  art  to  throw 
an  air  of  truth  or  probability  over  the  most  whimsical  and 
improbable  assumptions,  and  by  absorbing  the  mind  of  the 
reader  with  mathematical  calculations,  to  make  him  assent 
to  propositions,  which  in  themselves  were  utterly  false. 

Theory  of  Leibnitz.  Leibnitz  was  one  of  the  most  pro- 
found mathematicians  of  his  time.  His  theory  was  pub- 
lished in  1680,  and  is  another  curious  specimen  of  imagi- 
nary cosmogony.  He  supposed  that  this  globe  was  ori- 
ginally a  luminous  burning  mass,  and  that  from  the  time 
of  the  creation  it  had  been  gradually  cooling.  When  the 
water  which  surrounded  it  in  the  form  of  steam,  became 
condensed  by  the  cooling  of  the  earth,  then  the  sea  was 
formed,  which  at  first  entirely  surrounded  it  in  every  part, 
and  was  of  such  depth  as  to  cover  the  highest  mountains 
Further  consolidation  of  the  earth  by  cooling,  produced 
rents,  which  opening  into  caverns  beneath  the  crust,  ad- 
mitted a  part  of  the  universal  ocean,  thus  leaving  a  por- 
tion of  the  earth  dry  land,  preparatory  to  the  creation  of 
man,  and  for  his  habitation.  He  imagined,  also,  that  the 
temperature  of  the  earth  was  continually  diminishing,  and 
that  the  level  of  the  sea  was  constantly  sinking.  The  first 
idea  was  considered  as  entirely  groundless  by  succeeding 
geologists,  but  recently  the  doctrine  of  subterranean  heat 
has  been  embraced  by  several  respectable  naturalists,  and 
is  now  the  prevailing  foundation  of  the  theories  of  earth- 
quakes and  volcanoes.  The  gradual  sinking  of  the  sea, 
is  a  doctrine  which  has  had  many  strong  advocates,  and  is 
still  supposed  to  have  been  proved  by  various  tests.  But 
it  will  be  seen  in  the  progress  of  this  volume,  that  facts 
have  decided  against  this  hypothesis. 


GEOLOGICAL    THEORIES.  25 

We  might  occupy  our  whole  volume  with  the  different 
theories  which  have  been  proposed,  to  account  for  the 
present  appearances  of  this  earth,  but  we  must  close  this 
part  of  our  subject,  by  an  epitome  of  those  of  Buffon,  and 
Kepler,  and  with  a  short  account  of  the  Neptunian  and 
Plutonian  doctrines. 

Buffon1  s  Theory.  This  is  principally  an  extension  of 
that  of  Leibnitz.  He  adds  another  comet,  which  by  a  vi- 
olent blow  upon  the  sun,  struck  off  the  mass  of  which  our 
earth  is  composed  in  a  liquid  state,  and  with  the  earth,  all 
the  other  planets  which  compose  our  system. 

From  such  suppositions,  Buffon  was  enabled  to  assume 
data  by  which  he  arrived  at  several  important  conclusions. 
Thus  by  estimating  the  heat  of  the  sun  (the  earth  being 
originally  of  the  same  temperature)  and  comparing  it  with 
the  present  heat  of  the  earth,  it  could  be  told  (by  assum- 
ing a  rate  of  cooling)  how  long  it  had  taken  to  cool  down 
thus  far.  Then  as  the  other  planets  had  come  from  the 
sun  at  the  same  time  with  the  earth,  it  could  be  calculated 
by  the  same  rules  how  many  ages  is  still  required  to  cool 
the  larger  ones,  so  as  to  admit  of  their  being  inhabited, 
and  how  far  the  smaller  ones  were  now  frozen,  so  as  to 
have  destroyed  all  animal  life. 

He  accounts  for  the  spherical  form  of  the  earth  and  other 
planets  from  their  being  set  in  motion  while  in  a  semi-fluid 
state.  With  Leibnitz,  Buffon  supposed  that  the  ocean 
once  enveloped  the  whole  earth,  covering  the  highest 
mountains,  and  hence  the  appearance  of  shells  far  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  The  water  afterwards  ran  into  caverns 
which  opened  into  the  earth,  and  thus  the  ocean  subsided 
to  its  present  level.  Soon,  after  Buffon's  theory  was 
published,  he  received  an  official  letter  from  the  Faculty 
of  Theology  at  Paris,  dated  January,  1751,  stating  that 
some  of  his  propositions  were  reprehensible,  and  contrary 
to  the  creed  of  the  Church.  One  of  these  propositions 
were  as  follows.  "  The  waters  of  the  sea  have  produced 
the  mountains  and  valleys  of  the  land — the  waters  of  the 
Heavens  reducing  all  to  a  level,  will  at  last  deliver  all, 
over  to  the  sea,  which  successively  prevailing  over  the  land, 
will  leave  dry,  new  Continents  like  those  which  we  in- 
habit." The  objectionable  doctrine  seems  to  have  been 
that  in  the  opinion  of  Buffon  the  present  mountains  and 
valleys  of  the  earth  are  due  to  secondary  causes,  and  that 
3  S 


26  GEOLOGICAL    THEORIES. 

the  same  causes  will  destroy  all  the  continents,  hills,  and 
valleys,  and  re-produce  new  ones,  and  so  on  perpetually, 
while  the  scripture  doctrine  warns  us  that  there  shall  be 
an  end  of  all  created  things,  &c. 

Buffon  was  invited  to  a  conference  with  the  Faculty  in 
order  to  make  an  explanation,  or  rather  a  recantation  of 
his  errors.  To  this  he  submitted,  and  having  satisfied  that 
body  of  his  Orthodoxy  in  a  written  instrument,  called  his 
"  Declaration,"  he  was  required  to  publish  the  same  in  the 
next  edition  of  his  work.  This  declaration  begins  thus. 
"  I  declare,  that  I  had  no  intention  of  contradicting  the  text 
of  the  Scriptures; — that  I  believe  most  firmly  all  therein 
related  about  the  creation,  both  as  to  the  order  of  time  and 
matter  of  fact ;  and  I  abandon  every  thing  in  my  book 
respecting  the  formation  of  the  earth,  and  generally  all 
which  may  be  contrary  to  the  narrative  of  Moses,"  &c. 

Kepler's  Theory.  Kepler,  one  of  the  profoundest 
mathematicians  and  astronomers  the  world  has  ever  seen, 
offered  a  theory  of  the  earth  more  singular  and  whimsical 
than  any  of  his  contemporaries,  or  predecessors.  His  no- 
tions, indeed  are  so  odd,  and  void  of  common  sense,  that 
it  might  be  supposed  he  intended  to  ridicule  his  brother 
theorists  by  going  beyond  them  in  improbabilities,  rather 
than  to  offer  the  world  his  sober  opinions. 

Kepler  supposed,  or  pretended  to  suppose,  that  the 
earth  contained  a  circulating  vital  fluid,  and  was  possessed 
of  living  powers — and  that  a  process  of  assimilation  goes 
on  in  it  as  well  as  in  other  animals.  Every  particle  of 
matter,  according  to  him,  is  alive,  and  possesses  volition 
and  instinct ;  hence  these  particles  attract  and  repel  each 
other  according  to  their  several  sympathies,  or  antipathies. 
Thus  the  particles  of  water  will  repel  those  of  oil  because 
they  have  an  antipathy  to  each  other,  but  each  fluid  will 
readily  unite  with  another  portion  of  the  same  kind 
because  the  particles  possess  mutual  sympathies.  Each 
kind  of  mineral  substance  is  capable  of  converting  masses 
of  other  matter  into  its  own  peculiar  kind,  as  animals 
convert  their  aliment  into  blood.  The  burning  moun- 
tains are  the  respiratory  organs  of  the  globe ;  and  the 
slates  are  the  organs  of  secretion,  as  the  glands  are  those 
of  the  animal.  The  slates  decompose  the  waters  of  the 
ocean,  in  order  to  prepare  its  elements  to  produce  earth- 
quakes and  volcanic  eruptions.  The  metallic  veins  in  th^ 


GEOLOGICAL  THEORIES,  27 

strata  of  the  earth,  are  caries  or  abscesses  of  the  mineral 
kingdom,  and  the  metals  themselves  are  the  products  of 
decay  ami  disease,  and  hence  the  offensive  odour  of  some 
of  these  products. 

These  several  theories,  and  a  great  variety  of  others, 
have  been  invented  in  order  to  account  for  the  same 
phenomena,  and  to  solve  the  same  problem,  viz.  in  what 
manner,  or  by  what  changes,  or  events,  are  we  to  account 
for  the  present  appearances,  or  condition  of  the  earth's 
surface?  The  reader  will  observe  in  general,  that  these 
theorists,  instead  of  taking  the  trouble  to  observe  facts 
and  to  draw  just  conclusions  from  them,  have  in  the  first 
place  formed  their  systems,  and  supported  them  in^the 
best  manner  they  could,  calling  to  their  aid,  ingenuity, 
plausibility,  and  false  argument. 

The  science  of  Geology  never  progressed  until  men  saw 
the  folly  of  forming  theories  which  had  no  concern  with 
facts.  To  record  facts  is  the  first  business  of  the  geolo- 
gist, and  if  he  cannot  account  for  them  in  a  rational  and 
scientific  manner,  to  let  them  stand  recorded  until  further 
investigations. 

Plutonian  and  Neptunian  Doctrines.  We  shall  close 
this  part  of  our  volume  by  an  abstract  of  the  theories  of 
Werner  and  Hutton,  commonly  entitled  the  Neptunian 
and  Plutonian  doctrines. 

The  theories  of  these  two  distinguished  geologists  for 
the  last  half  century  have  divided  the  opinions  of  geolo- 
gical writers,  each  side  insisting  in  the  most  positive  and 
uncompromising  terms,  on  the  truth  of  their  adopted 
cause. 

The  Plutonians  or  Huttonians,  attribute  most  of  the 
present  appearances  of  the  globe,  and  the  changes  it  has 
undergone,  to  the  agency  of  fire,  not,  however,  entirely 
rejecting  that  of  water. 

The  Neptunians  or  Wemerians,  on  the  contrary,  affect 
to  prove  in  as  positive  terms  that  these  same  changes,  and 
appearances  may,  with  the  exception  of  volcanic  products, 
be  traced  entirely  to  the  agency  of  water — "to  aqueous 
solution,  disintegration,  and  deposition." 

There  is  one  difficulty  in  attempting  to  expound  the 
doctrines  of  Werner,  .which  is,  that  we  are  obliged  to  take 
them  second  handed,  from  the  writings  of  others,  he  hav- 
ing never  himself  published  them  in  a  connected  view.  In 

\ 


28  GEOLOGICAL  THEORIES. 

speaking  therefore  of  Werner's  theory,  we  can  only  avail 
ourselves  of  such  transient  glimpses  as  he  has  himself 
thought  fit  to  give  us,  and  must  fill  up  the  various  chasms 
with  materials  derived  from  the  more  extended  sketches 
and  illustrations  of  his  pupils.* 

Werner's  theory  may  be  thus  stated.  The  matter  of 
our  globe  was  once  in  a  soft,  or  fluid  state,  or  at  least  its 
nucleus  was  once  enveloped  by  a  chaotic  aqueous  solu- 
tion of  such  a  nature  as  to  retain  the  various  earthy 
bodies  found  in  the  lowest  strata  in  chemical  combination ; 
but  this  state  of  things  was  of  short  duration,  and  during 
which,  there  was  deposited  from  the  water  a  variety  of 
crystalline  aggregates,  such  as  the  different  species  of 
granite,  and  what  are  called  primitive  slate,  and  primi- 
tive limestones.  These  constitute  the  primary  rocks, 
or  formations  of  the  Wernerian  school,  and  are  sup- 
posed to  have  had  their  origin  before  the  creation  of 
animated  beings,  and  hence  no  organic  remains,  such  as 
shells,  are  found  in  these  rocks.  The  second  class  of 
rocks  are  supposed  to  have  been  formed  during  the  transi- 
tion of  the  earth  from  its  chaotic,  to  its  habitable  state, 
and  hence  are  called  transition  rocks.  These  are  partly 
crystalline  aggregates,  and  partly  mechanical  deposites 
from  water:  they  contain  the  fragments  of  pre-existing 
rocks  cemented  together,  and  sometimes  contain  imper- 
fect remains  of  the  lower  orders  of  animals  and  plants,  as 
shells  and  impressions  of  ferns.  Certain  kinds  of  lime- 
stone and  sandstones  belong  to  this  class.  These  rocks 
are  derived  from  the  fragmentary  remains  and  the  disinte- 
gration of  the  primitive  rocks. 

The  third  class  of  rocks  are  supposed  to  have  been  form- 
ed by  the  action  of  the  natural  elements  on  these,  and  by 
which  they  have  been  broken  down,  and  mechanically 
diffused  in  water.  The  action  of  frost,  water,  and  attri- 
bution, are  supposed  to  have  chiefly  produced  this  effect,  af- 
ter which  the  materials  were  deposited  in  horizontal  stra- 
ta. These  are  the  Floetz,  or  flat  rocks  of  Werner,  and  the 
Tertiary,  or  secondary  rocks,  of  later  authors.  They 
abound  in  vegetable  and  animal  remains,  as  ferns,  shells, 
fish,  and  bones.  The  newer  limestone,  red  sandstone,  and 
coal  strata,  belong  to  this  class. 


*  Brand's  outlines  of  geology.    P.  21. 


GEOLOGICAL    THEORIES.  29 

Above  these  rocks  we  find  depositions  of  sand,  and 
gravel,  and  clay ;  accumulations  of  peat,  and  other  substan- 
ces now  in  the  progress  of  deposition,  and  which  are  inclu- 
ded under  the  general  terms  alluvial  formations.  These 
constitute  the  fourth  class.  The  fifth  class  contains  the 
products  of  volcanoes,  whether  the  result  of  fusion  or  not, 
such  as  rocks  thrown  out  without  melting,  volcanic  mud,  &c. 

It  is  supposed  that  all  the  formations  as  they  are  term- 
ed, or  all  the  different  kinds  of  rocks  and  strata  now  found 
on  the  earth,  will  fall  under  one  or  another  of  these  clas- 
ses. But  it  will  be  seen  hereafter,  that  this  theory  is,  in 
many  respects,  unsatisfactory,  and  that  there  are  several 
rocks,  such  as  basalt  and  greenstone,  which  certainly  are 
not  of  aqueous  origin,  and  which  do  not  come  within  Wer- 
ner's volcanic  class. 

Werner  was  appointed  professor  of  mineralogy,  at  the 
school  of  Mines,  in  Saxony,  1775,  and  was  undoubtedly 
a  man  of  the  highest  ord^r  of  talents.  His  mind  was  at 
once  sound,  imaginative,  and  richly  stored  with  miscella- 
neous knowledge.  He  had  a  great  aversion  to  the  me- 
chanical labor  of  writing,  and  could  never  be  persuaded 
to  pen  more  than  a  few  brief  sketches,  and  which  never 
contained  a  connected  development  of  his  geological 
views.  Although  the  natural  modesty  of  his  disposition 
\vas  excessive,  approaching  even  timidity,  yet  he  indulged 
in  th?  most  bold  and  sweeping  generalization,  and  he  in- 
spired all  his  pupils,  some  of  which  became  writers  of  great 
eminence,  with  the  most  implicit  faith  in  his  doctrines. 

"  Their  admiration,"  says  Mr.  Lyell,  "  of  his  genius,  and 
the  feelings  of  gratitude  and  friendship  which  they  all  felt 
for  him,  were  not  undeserved ;  but  the  supreme  authority 
which  he  usurped  over  his  contemporaries,  was  probably 
in  the  event  prejudicial  to  the  progress  of  science." 

The  Plutonic,  or  Huttonian  Theory  owes  its  origin  to 
Dr.  Hutton  of  Edinburgh.  It  was  published  in  1788,  but 
has  been  more  recently  illustrated,  and  defended  in  a  re- 
publication  by  Professor  Playfair,  also  of  Edinburgh. 

We  have  already  stated  that  the  Plutonians  attributed 
the  same  phenomena  to  fire,  which  the  Neptunians  did  to 
water.  The  Plutonians,  however,  supposed  that  most 
stratified  rocks  were  deposited  from  water. 

Hutton's  Theory  may  be  stated  shortly,  as  follows. — 
The  materials  which  compose  the  present  surface  of  the 
globe,  have  been  derived  from  the  ruin  of  ancient  rocks, 
3* 


30  GEOLOGICAL    THEORIES. 

which  have  been  disintegrated  and  pulverized  by  the  con- 
tinued action  of  torrents  and  currents  of  water;  and  by  the 
same  means  these  materials  have  been  transported  to  the 
bottom  of  the  ocean.  Here  they  have  been  consolidated, 
partly  by  time,  and  partly  by  the  pressure  of  the  water,  but 
chiefly  by  the  effects  of  subterranean  heat.  By  the  same 
cause,  more  powerfully  exerted,  that  is,  by  the  expansive 
power  of  volcanic  heat,  the  strata  thus  formed  have  been 
elevated  from  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  to  occupy  the  situ- 
ations under  which  they  now  appear.  Thus  the  strata  are 
thrown  into  different  degrees  of  inclination  to  the  horizon  ; 
or  are  broken  and  dislocated  ;  or  appear  in  nearly  a  verti- 
cal position,  depending  on  the  degree  of  force,  or  the  point 
of  its  application.  Sometimes,  also,  where  the  heat  has 
been  most  intense,  an  entire  fusion  of  the  materials  has  been 
effected.  The  rocks  which  are  not  stratified,  or  not  com- 
posed of  layers,  as  granite,  are  supposed  to  have  under- 
gone complete  fusion,  while  those  which  consist  of  layers, 
as  mica  slate,  are  supposed  only  to  have  been  softened  by 
the  heat.  The  same  disintegration,  and  corrosion,  and  the 
same  transportation  to  the  sea,  is  constantly  going  on  with 
respect  to  the  present  rocks,  so  that  finally  these  materi- 
als will  again  be  restored  to  the  sea,  to  be  again  raised 
above  its  surface  by  volcanic  fire,  as  before  ;  and  as  the 
present  continents  were  formed  by  the  destruction  of  an- 
cient rocks,  so  future  continents  will  be  formed  in  their 
turn,  by  rocks  now  preparing  for  that  purpose. — Brandos 
Outlines  of  Geology. 

It  is  generally  acknowledged  at  the  present  day,  that 
Mutton's  theory  will  account  for  a  much  greater  number 
of  geological  phenomena  than  Werner's.  It  is  impossi- 
ble, for  instance,  to  account  for  the  present  situation  of 
stratified  rocks  containing  sea  shells,  unless  we  suppose, 
either  that  the  sea  occupied  the  earth  for  ages,  or  that  these 
strata  were  formed  under  the  ocean,  and  elevated  by  some 
mighty  force ;  and  as  we  know  that  islands  are  thrown  up 
from  the  sea,  by  volcanic  force,  at  the  present  day,  it  is 
reasonable  to  attribute  the  same  effect  to  the  same  cause, 
anciently. 


GENERAL   FORM   AND  CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    GLOBE. 

Although  in  a  popular  sense  the  form  of  the  earth  is  that 
of  a  globe,  yet  science  has  long  since  determined,  that  its 
figure  is  not  that  of  a  perfect  sphere,  but  of  an  oblate 
spheriod,  the  diameter  at  the  equator  being  greater  than 
at  the  poles.  This  difference  has  been  variously  estimat- 
ed, but  if  we  consider  the  polar,  to  the  equitorial  diameter 
in  the  proportion  of  304  to  305,  we  shall  perhaps  come  as 
near  the  truth  as  the  present  state  of  observations  will 
allow.  This  allows  the  poles  a  compression  equal  to 
TUT,  and  the  two  diameters  as  follows. 

Equitorial  diameter,  about          -  -  7,924  miles. 

The  Polar  diameter  -  -          -     7,898  miles. 

Difference.          26  miles. 

This  estimate  is  from  the  authority,  of  Daubuisson. 
Dr.  Macculloch  makes  the  difference  somewhat  greater, 
but  we  need  not  here  go  into  comparisons  on  a  point 
where  no  two  authors  agree,  the  difference  of  a  few  miles 
being  a  matter  of  no  consequence  to  our  present  purpose. 

This  form  of  the  earth  is  precisely  such  a  one  as  it 
would  have  taken  had  it  been  a  homogenous  semi-fluid 
with  a  rapid  motion  round  its  axis.  This  form  may  be 
illustrated  by  fixing  a  ball  of  soft  clay  on  a  spindle  and 
setting  it  in  motion.  The  ball  will  be  flattened  at  the  poles 
or  axis  of  motion,  and  elongated,  or  thrown  out,  at  the  cir- 
cumference, or  equator.  This  is  obviously  the  conse- 
quence of  the  greater  centrifugal  force  at  the  circumfer- 
ence than  at  the  centre  of  motion. 

Density  of  the  Earth.  It  has  been  attempted  to 
estimate  the  density  of  the  whole  earth  from-  that  of  a 
particular  mountain.  For  this  purpose  Dr.  Maskelyne 
made  an  experiment  on  mount  Schihallien,  a  high  precipi- 
tous cliffi  in  order  to  ascertain  the  force  of  its  attraction, 
on  a  suspended  plummet;  with  the  view  of  deducing  the 
density  of  the  whole  earth  by  comparing  its  attraction 


S2  CONSTITUTION  Ot 

with  that  of  the  mountain.  From  such  data  it  was  found 
that  the  mean  density  of  the  earth  was  to  that  of  the 
mountain  as  9  to  5 ;  and  from  hence  it  was  concluded  that 
the  interior  of  the  globe  must  be  composed  of  substances 
whose  density  was  about  double  that  of  the  mass  of  the 
mountain.  But  it  was  subsequently  found  that  the  speci- 
fic gravity  of  the  mountain,  an  item  in  these  calcalations, 
had  been  estimated  too  high,  and  by  the  corrections  made1 
by  Mr.  Playfair,  the  density  of  the  earth  obtained  in  this 
way  was  found  to  be  only  5.  That  is,  the  whole  earth, 
bulk  for  bulk,  is  five  times  the  weight  of  water.  This 
estimate,  which  is  most  generally  received  at  the  present 
day,  makes  it  necessary  to  suppose  that  the  interior  of  the 
earth  is  much  more  dense  than  its  surface  ;  for  the  heaviest 
rock  with  which  we  are  acquainted  has  a  density  of  only 
3,  and  the  lightest  about  2|,  while  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  ocean  is  a  little  more  than  1.  The  specific  gravity  of 
the  earth's  surface  including  the  water,  therefore,  cannot 
be  much  above  2i.  But  the  mean  density  of  the  whole 
earth  being  5,  is  more  than  double  that  of  its  surface,  and 
hence  the  interior  of  the  earth  must  have  a  greater  density 
than  5,  to  counterbalance  this  want  of  weight  at  the 
surface. 

From  these  considerations,  it  has  been  supposed  that 
the  interior  of  the  earth,  instead  of  being  compcsed  of 
rocks,  like  the  surface,  must  consist  of  metallic  substances. 
It  has  also  been  shown  from  mathematical  calculations 
that  there  is  a  gradual  increase  of  density  towards  the 
centre  of  the  earth,  and  hence  it  has  been  thought  still 
more  probable  that  its  nucleus  is  of  a  metallic  nature. 

La  Place,  with  this  view  of  the  earth's  structure,  has 
estimated  its  density  at  the  centre.  If  5,  4  be  taken  as  its 
mean  density  and  its  superficial  densities  be  assumed  as  3, 
13;  3,  2;  2,  79;  and  2,  GO,  then  on  the  theory  of  the  com- 
pressibility, the  density  at  the  centre  will  be  1 3,  25 ;  1 4,  54 ; 
15,  78;  and  20,  10,  respectively.  The  least  of  these  is 
about  double  the  density  of  iron,  and  the  greatest  exceeds 
that  of  gold,  being  about  equal  to  that  of  hammered 
platina,  the  most  ponderous  of  all  known  substances. 
But  both  philosophy  and  conjecture  are  alike  useless 
on  this  subject,  for  in  spite  of  both,  we  must  remain 
ignorant  concerning  the  composition  of  the  earth's 
centre, 


THE   GLOBE.  33 

f   ».,  .    ..^,  -.-^t<.  -.'.,.  ..• 

Distribution  of  Sea  and  Land.  Nearly  three  fourths 
of  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe  is  covered  by  water. 
The  surface  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  alone  is  estimated  to 
be  somewhat  greater  than  all  the  dry  land  with  which  we 
are  acquainted. — (Daubuisson.) 

The  greatest  elevation  of  land  is  about  25,000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea ;  but  its  greatest  depression,  being  con- 
cealed by  the  water,  cannot  be  ascertained,  and  hence  the 
quantity  of  water  which  the  oceans  contain  cannot  be  es- 
timated with  any  degree  of  accuracy.  La  Place,  however, 
has  made  a  computation  of  the  mean  depth  of  the  sea, 
founded  on  the  theory  of  the  tides,  by  which  he  concludes 
that  it  is  about  twelve  miles.  Concerning  the  bottom  of 
the  sea,  we  know  little  more  than  that  it  consists  of  moun- 
tains and  valleys,  like  the  surface  of  the  land.  This  is  as- 
certained by  the  rocks,  and  islands  which  rise  above  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and  the  reefs  and  deep  water,  which 
are  known  to  exist  alternately,  below  it.  The  sounding 
line  of  the  mariner  not  only  detects  this  unevenness  of 
the  submarine  surface,  but  also  the  steep  acclivities  of  its 
mountains  and  the  gradual  risings  of  its  sand  banks. 

Composition  and  specific  gravity  of  the  Sea.  The 
whole  ocean  is  composed  of  salt  water,  though  it  varies 
considerably  with  respect  to  the  quantity  of  solid  matter 
it  contains.  At  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  in  bays  which 
receive  streams  from  the  land,  it  is  obvious  that  the  water 
cannot  be  so  fully  saturated  with  salt,  as  it  is  where  it  is  not 
thus  diluted.  There  is  also  a  difference  with  respect  to 
the  quantity  of  salt  which  different  oceans  contain,  inde- 
pendently of  any  such  circumstance.  This  is  ascertained, 
not  only  by  the  analysis  of  their  waters,  but  also  by  their 
different  specific  gravities. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  standard,  or  unity,  by 
which  specific  gravities  are  estimated,  is  distilled  water, 
which  is  1 ;  and  therefore  the  greater  the  quantity  of  solid 
matter  any  water  contains,  the  greater  will  be  its  specific 
gravity. 

Dr.  Marcet  instituted  a  series  of  experiments  on  sea  wa- 
ter from  different  parts  of  the  world,  from  which  he  ob 
tained  the  following  results  and  conclusions. 

1.  "That  the  Southern  Ocean  contains  more  salt  than 
the  Northern,  in  the  ratio  of  1.02919  to  1.02757." 

2.  "That  the  mean  specific  gravity  of  sea-water,  near 


14  CONSTITUTION  OF 

the  equator,  is  1.02777,  intermediate  between  that  of  th«- 
northern  and  southern  hemispheres." 

3.  "  That  there  is  no  notable  difference  in  sea-water, 
under  different  meridians." 

4.  "  That  there  is  no  satisfactory  evidence  that  the  sea 
at  great  depths,  is  more  salt  than  at  the  surface." 

5.  "  That  the  sea,  in  general,  contains  more  salt  where 
it  is  deepest  and  most  remote  from  land ;  and  that  its  salt- 
ness  is  always  diminished  in  the  vicinity  of  large  masses 
of  ice/' 

6.  "  That  small   inland  seas,  though   communicating 
with  the  ocean,  are  much  less  salt  than  the  ocean  itself. 

7.  "That  the  Mediterranean  contains  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  salt  than  the  ocean." 

Temperature  of  the  Earth.  The  superficial  tempera- 
ture of  the  earth,  if  not  entirely  due  to  the  heat  of  the  sun, 
is  greatly  influenced  by  it.  Still  local  circumstances  cause 
considerable  variations  in  different  places  situated  under 
the  same  latitudes.  These  circumstances  will  be  noticed 
in  their  proper  place. 

Geological  investigations  have  proved  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  earth  has  not  always  remained  the  same ;  but  that 
the  climates  of  different  countries,  and  probably  the  su- 
perficial heat  of  the  entire  globe,  have  greatly  deteriorated, 
since  the  time  when  the  elephant  inhabited  Siberia,  and 
the  mastodon,  the  forests  of  North  America.  This  subject 
will  be  examined  under  the  articles  "Change  of  Climate," 
and  "Organic  Remains." 

With  respect  to  the  internal  temperature  of  the  Earth, 
the  prevailing  opinion  among  geologists  of  the  presen* 
day,  appears  to  be  that  the  heat  increases  in  some  propor- 
tion to  the  distance  of  the  descent  from  the  surface.  That 
this  is  the  case,  seems  to  be  proved  by  the  experiments 
made  in  mines,  situated  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  an 
account  of  which  will  be  given  hereafter. 

Temperature  of  the  Sea  and  of  Lakes.  The  maximum 
density  of  fresh  water  is  at  the  temperature  of  40  degrees 
of  Fahrenheit,  and  it  has  been  considered  that  sea-water 
follows  a  similar  law  of  condensation.  Now  water  being 
free  in  its  motion,  arranges  itself  according  to  its  density, 
that  which  is  at,  or  near  the  temperature  of  40°,  occupy 


inr    GLOB*.  95 

ing  the  lowest  place,  while  that  which  is  warmed  by  the 
sun,  is  superincumbent  on  this. 

In  1819  and  1820,  Mr.  De  laBechemade  numerous  ex- 
periments, with  great  care,  on  the  temperature  of  the  Swiss 
lakes,  and  from  which  he  found  that  between  the  surface 
and  the  depth  of  40  fathoms,  there  was  a  material  varia- 
tion of  temperature.  From  one  to  five  fathoms,  in  the  month 
of  September,  the  heat  was  from  64°  to  67°;  but  be- 
low this,  the  temperature  decreased  down  to  40  fathoms. 
From  40  to  90  fathoms,  the  thermometer  stood  almost  uni- 
formly at  44°;  and  from  90  to  164  fathoms,  it  invariably 
stood  at  43°  5' 

In  the  winter,  these  experiments  were  repeated,  and  it 
was  found  that  the  temperature  of  the  water  followed  the 
same  law. 

The  temperature  of  the  sea  at  different  depths,  accords 
sufficiently  with  the  observations  already  made ;  the  tempe- 
rature diminishing  to  the  depth  where  the  fluid  attains  its 
greatest  density,  below  which  it  remains  the  same,  or  at 
a  similar  temperature.  It  appears,  however,  that  there  is 
considerable  difference  in  the  temperature  of  different  seas, 
at  similar  depths.  Thus  Capt.  Kotzebue,  in  latitude  about 
36°  N.  and  longitude  148°  W.  when  the  surface  of  the 
water  was  nearly  73°,  found  the  temperature  57°,  at  25  fa- 
thoms; 52°  8'  at  103  fathoms;  and  44°  at  300  fathoms. 
White  the  same  observer  in  lat.  30°  39'  S.  found  a  tempe- 
rature of  49°  5'  at  35  fathoms ;  and  in  a  similar  latitude 
S.  38°  8'  in  196  fathoms.  It  will  be  observed,  however, 
that  the  same  law  is  maintained,  both  in  salt  and  fresh 
water,  viz.  a  decrease  of  temperature  downwards.  But  this 
fact  is  not  at  variance  with  the  probability  of  an  internal, 
er  central  heat,  since  the  waters  arrange  themselves  in  the 
order  of  their  densities,  and  this  would  take  place,  whether 
the  bottoms  of  deep  seas  were  cold  or  warm, 

Temperature  of  the  Atmosphere.  The  atmosphere  is 
composed  of  two  gaseous  substances,  called  oxygen  and 
nitrogen,  and  in  the  proportion  of  20  parts  of  the  first,  to 
80  of  the  last.  From  its  refractive  powers,  it  has  been 
calculated  that  the  atmosphere  reaches  to  the  height  ol 
about  45  miles  above  every  part  of  the  earth. 

The  heat  which  is  constantly  radiating  from  the  earth, 
is  absorbed  by  the  atmosphere,  so  that  its  temperature  in 
hot  climates  often  exceeds  that  of  the  human  system.  That 


36  CONSTITUTION    0V 

the  temperature  of  the  air  is  dependent  on  the  heat  of  the 
earth's  surface,  is  proved  by  the  well  known  fact,  that  it 
constantly  diminishes  as  we  ascend  upwards,  or  recede 
from  the  earth.  Hence,  in  the  hottest  climates,  there  is  a 
region  a  few  thousand  feet  above  the  earth,  to  which  its 
heat  never  ascends  in  such  quantity  as  to  prevent  perpetu- 
al congelation. 

The  line  of  perpetual  snow,  we  should  suppose  would 
differ  in  elevation,  (under  equal  circumstances,)  accord- 
ing to  the  distance  from  the  equator.  It  is,  however, 
liable  to  considerable  variations,  probably  from  local  cau- 
ses. 

The  following  table,  from  Encyc.  Britannica,  article  Cli- 
mate, presents  the  different  elevations  at  which  there  is 
constant  frost,  under  different  latitudes. 

Lat.  Height  in  feet.      Lat.  Height  in  feet. 


0°  15,207 

5  15,095 

10  14,761 

15  14,220 

20  13,478 

25  12,557 

30  11,484 

35  10,287 

40  9,001 


45°  7,671 

50  6,334 

55  5,034 

60  3,818 

65  2,722 

70  1,778 

75  1,016 

80  457 

85  117 


From  this  table,  we  learn  that  there  is  no  regular 
correspondence  between  the  latitude  and  the  height  of 
perpetual  frost,  and  that  the  difference  in  this  respect  is 
much  greater  than  might  have  been  expected  from  the 
influence  of  local  causes.  Thus  the  difference  between 
the  freezing  height  at  the  equator,  and  in  latitude  five  de- 
grees, is  only  one  hundred  and  twelve  feet ;  though  at  the 
other  extreme,  from  eighty  to  eighty-five  degrees,  this 
difference  is  upwards  of  three  hundred  feet.  Much  the 
greatest  difference  is  in  the  temperate  latitudes,  as  be- 
tween thirty-five  degrees,  and  forty  degrees,  where  the  ele- 
vation is  from  10,287,  down  to  9,001,  making  a  difference 
of  1,286  feet  in  five  degrees.  Whether  these  differences 
are  entirely  dependent  on  local  causes,  we  have  no  means 
of  deciding. 

In  the  elevation  of  mountains  to  the  region  of  perpetual 


THE    GLOBE.  37 

frost,  and  in  such  a  disposition  of  things,  as  that  their  sum- 
mits should  constantly  be  covered  with  snow,  there  is  a  strik- 
ing display  of  wisdom  and  design.  Such  mountains,  in  ar- 
dent climates,  not  only  temper  the  atmosphere  below,  but 
serve  as  perpetual  reservoirs  of  water,  during  the  summer, 
from  the  melting'  of  the  ice,  and  thus  become  the  parents 
of  innumerable  streams,  without  which,  many  regions 
would  be  uninhabitable. 


EFFECTS  OF  CAUSES  NOW  IN  OPERATION  ON  EARTIl's 
SURFACE. 

The  earth  almost  every  where  presents  appearances 
which  cannot  be  traced  to  causes  now  existing,  or  which 
have  existed  since  the  historical  era.  No  high  mountains 
have  been  elevated,  or  deep  valleys  formed,  within  the  age 
of  history,  nor  can  these  great  effects  be  attributed  to  the 
slow  causes  now  in  operation.  It  is  true  that  occasional 
excavations  by  uncommon  floods  of  water  are  made,  and 
now  and  then  there  happens  a  subterranean  convulsion, 
which  elevates  a  small  portion  of  earth,  but  such  effects, 
though  supposed  to  have  operated  constantly,  from  the  re- 
motest period  which  the  imagination  can  suggest,  \vill  ne- 
ver account  satisfactorily,  for  the  changes  which  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  has  undergone  since  the  creation.  We 
may  hence  conclude,  either,  that  the  causes  which  produ- 
ced such  mighty  effects,  have  entirely  ceased,  and  are  un- 
known to  us,  or  that  they  operated  with  infinitely  greater 
force  formerly  than  at  present. 

If  we  attribute  the  elevation  of  mountains,  to  subterra- 
nean fire,  and  the  excavation  of  the  great  valleys,  to  floods 
of  water,  it  is  obvious  that  these  causes  must  have  been  infi- 
nitely more  powerful  at  some  remote  period  than  at  pre- 
sent. 

It  being  one  of  the  great  objects  of  Geology  to  point  out 
the  changes  which  the  crust  of  the  earth  has  undergone, 
and  if  possible  to  account  for  them  ;  it  becomes  necessary 
that  the  causes  now  operating,  and  the  effects  of  which 
are  apparent,  should  be  distinguished  from  those,  the  ef- 
fects only  of  which,  are  certainly  known  at  the  present  day. 

We  begin  with  the  "Effects  of  causes  now  in  operation," 
that  we  may  be  enabled  to  judge  how  far  they  have  been 
the  instruments  of  producing  the  changes  which  it  is  evi- 


38  EFFECTS  OF  RUNNING  WATER. 

dent  the  earth  has  undergone,  and  how  far,  with  more  time, 
or  greater  force,  they  might  account  for  the  phenomena 
which  the  earth  presents. 

General  effects  of  running  water.  It  is  well  known 
that  mountains,  or  lands  elevated  far  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  attract  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere,  in  some  pro- 
portion to  their  elevation.  By  this  provision,  the  higher 
regions  of  the  earth  become  perpetual  reservoirs  of  wa- 
ter, which  descend  and  irrigate  the  plains  and  valleys  below. 
Thus  a  great  proportion  of  the  water  which  falls  upon  the 
earth,  is  carried  first  to  the  higher  regions ;  and  then  made 
to  descend,  often  by  steep  declivities,  towards  the  sea,  so 
that  it  requires  a  rapid  velocity,  and  removes  a  greater 
quantity  of  soil  than  it  would  do,  if  the  rain  was  equally 
distributed  on  the  mountains  and  plains.  Thus  without 
reference  to  the  disintegration  or  decay  of  rocks,  the  wa- 
ter constantly  transports  more  or  less  soil  and  gravel  from 
the  hills  to  the  plains. 

Among  the  most  powerful  agents  in  effecting  the  decay 
of  rocks,  is  the  mechanical  action  of  water,  especially  in 
cold  climates.  It  is  well  known  that  water  expands  in  the 
act  of  freezing.  The  effect  of  this  expansion  is  so  pow- 
erful as  to  burst  bomb-shells,  and  large  ccnrcn,  when 
closely  confined  in  them.  When,  therefore,  water  falls 
into  the  fissures  of  rocks,  and  there  freezes,  the  rocks  are 
rent  apart  with  the  force  of  a  powerful  lever ;  and  the  more 
porous  ones  are  divided  into  small  pieces.  These  are  of- 
ten further  divided  by  the  frequent  fall,  and  consequent 
crushing  and  grinding  motion  of  one  rock  on  another  on 
the  declivities  of  the  mountains.  Water  also  has  the  pow- 
er of  dissolving  considerable  quantities  of  some  kinds  of 
rocks,  especially  those  of  the  limestone  and  gypsum  kinds. 
The  Oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  is  another  cause  of  the  de- 
cay of  rocks.  "  This  element  is  gradually  absorbed  by  all 
animal  and  vegetable  substances,  and  by  almost  all  mine- 
ral masses  exposed  to  the  open  air.  It  gradually  destroys 
the  equilibrium  of  the  elements  of  rocks,  even  the  hardest 
aggregates  belonging  to  our  globe." — Sir  H.  Davy. 

When  earthy  matter  has  been  once  mixed  with  running 
water,  a  new  mechanical  power  is  obtained  by  the  attrition 
of  sand  and  pebbles,  borne  along  by  the  violence  of  the 
stream.  Rapid  streams  charged  with  foreign  matter,  and 
thrown  against  their  rocky  sides,  will,  in  the  course  of  time, 


EFFECTS    OF    RONXIXO    WATER.  39 

produce  excavations,  in  consequence  of  which,  rocks  are 
often  undermined  and  precipitated  into  their  beds.  The 
water  being  thus  obstructed,  accumulates,  and  cuts  for  it- 
self a  new  ch  nine!,  taking  \vith  it  an  additional  quantity  of 
earth.  In  this  manner,  also,  the  stream  is  often  made  to 
take  a  new  direction,  perhaps  obliquely  across  the  valley- 
through  which  it  runs.  The  unequal  hardness  of  the  soil 
is  another  cause  of  change  in  the  direction  of  streams,  and 
so  also  are  logs  of  wood,  leaves,  and  other  matters  with 
which  streams  are  often  charged.  When  from  these,  or 
other  causes,  a  current  is  made  to  deviate  from  its  course, 
it  gradually  wears  a  curve  into  the  opposite  bank,  where 
the  water  for  a  moment  accumulates,  and  then  receiving 
a  different  direction  from  the  lower  side  of  the  curve, 
shoots  across  to  the  opposite  side,  where  a  similar  curve 
is  soon  formed,  and  the  water  made  to  re-cross  the  channel 
as  before.  Thus  we  often  see  brooks  and  rivers  crossing 
and  re-crossing  the  valleys  through  which  they  run,  many 
times;  and  sometimes,  after  taking  a  wide  sweep,  return- 
ing again  nearly  to  the  point  where  the  same  water  had 
passed,  an  hour,  or  many  hours  before.  When  this  hap- 
pens, and  every  one  has  seen 
such  instances,  it  is  often  the 
case  that  during  some  over- 
flow of  the  stream,  the  water 
cuts  across  the  isthmus  at  A, 
as  seen  in  the  diagram,  and 
thus  forms  an  island.  Incon- 
sequence of  this,  the  water  not  only  takes  a  new  direction 
at  that  particular  point,  but  often  the  foundation  is  thus  laid 
for  considerable  changes  below  the  island. 

These  serpentine  windings,  not  only  take  place  in  trout 
brooks,  but  in  the  largest  rivers,  and  thus  become  the 
means  of  levelling  and  fertilizing  tracts  of  country  of 
greater  or  less  extent.  The  Mississippi,  through  a  con- 
siderable part  of  its  course,  cuts  across  its  immense  valley 
in  the  manner  here  described,  and  sometimes  after  run- 
ning ten  or  twenty  miles,  returns  back  again  nearly  to  the 
same  point.  The  fertile  valley  of  the  Connecticut  has 
been  formed  in  a  great  measure  by  the  same  means.  The 
rich  meadows,  now  every  year  irrigated  by  its  waters, 
have  been  formed  in  the  course  of  time,  by  the  changes  of 
its  bed.  This  is  shown  by  the  logs  of  wood  uncovered 
in  its  banks  by  every  new  change  its  current  makes  at 
the  present  time.  Charcoal  and  other  organic  substances 


40  THE  RIVER  PO. 

stances  have  been  found  20  feet  below  the  present  surface 
of  its  banks. 

In  estimating  the  transporting  power  of  water,  we  are 
apt  to  forget  its  buoyancy,  and  on  which  indeed  its  power 
of  moving  heavy  substances,  such  as  rocks,  in  a  great  mea- 
sure depends.  The  specific  gravity  of  many  rocks  is  little 
more  than  twice  that  of  water,  that  of  granite  and  lime- 
stone being  about  2.50,  that  is,  two  and  a  half  times,  bulk 
for  bulk,  the  weight  of  water.  Hence  a  stone  weighing 
twenty-five  pounds  in  the  air  or  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, will  weigh  only  fifteen  pounds  when  immersed  in 
water.  Those  who  have  never  tried  the  experiment  of 
lifting  a  stone  under  water,  will  be  surprised  to  find,  with 
what  ease  he  can  raise  a  block  of  granite  to  the  surface, 
above  which,  however,  with  all  his  efforts,  he  cannot  lift  it. 
If  a  man  can  lift  a  stone  weighing  one  hundred  pounds 
whose  specific  gravity  is  two,  in  the  air,  he  can  lift  one 
weighing  two  hundred  pounds  in  the  water,  because  the 
fluid  lifts  just  one  half  of  its  \veight.  It  is  from  our  not 
taking  this  circumstance  into  account,  that  we  are  often  sur- 
prised at  the  power  of  torrents  to  move  stones  of  great  size. 

According  to  experiments  recorded  in  the  Encyclope- 
dia Britannica,  a  velocity  of  water  equal  to  three  inches 
per  second  is  sufficient  to  tear  up  fine  clay, — six  inches  per 
second  fine  sand — twelve  inches  per  second  fine  gravel ; 
and  three  feet  per  second  small  stones.  It  is  obvious, 
however,  that  the  depth  of  the  water  will  influence  these 
results,  and  that  the  power  of  moving  bodies  will  be  in 
proportion  to  its  depth  and  velocity. 

Since  the  time  of  historical  records,  the  power  of  run- 
ning water  has  produced  many,  and  great  changes  in  va- 
rious parts  of  the  world.  In  some  instances,  lakes  have 
been  filled  up,  in  others,  deep  ravines  have  been  formed. 
in  others  \vhole  districts  have  been  ruined  in  consequence 
of  rivers  having  changed  their  beds,  and  in  others,  conside- 
rable tracts  of  land  have  been  accumulated,  or  sometimes 
swept  away,  by  the  force  of  mountain  torrents. 

Effects  of  the  River  Po.  The  Po  affords  a  grand  example 
of  the  manner  in  which  a  great  and  rapid  stream,  bears 
down  to  the  sea,  the  alluvial  matter  poured  into  it  by  a 
multitude  of  tributaries,  descending  from  lofty  chains  of 
mountains.  The  changes  gradually  produced  by  this 
river  in  the  great  plains  of  Northern  Italy  since  the  time 


THE  RIVER  PO.  41 

of  the  Roman  Republic  have  been  exceedingly  disastrous 
to  some  parts  of  that  country.  Extensive  lakes,  and 
marshes,  have  been  slowly  filled  up,  as  those  of  Placentia, 
Parma  and  Cremona,  while  others  have  been  drained  by  the 
sams  cause.  Since  1390  the  Po  deserted  its  bed  through 
a  part  of  the  territory  of  Cremona  and  invaded  that  of  Par- 
ma, its  old  channel  being  still  obvious,  and  retaining  the 
name  of  Po  morto,  or  dead  Po.  The  town  of  Bres- 
sello,  which  formerly  stood  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river, 
now  stands  on  the  right,  the  river,  not  the  town,  having 
changed  its  locality.  In  the  ancient  parish  records  it  is 
stated  that  several  churches  were  taken  down  and  after- 
wards rebuilt  at  a  greater  distance  from  the  new  bed  of 
this  devastating  stream,  and  in  1471  the  friars  of  a  monas- 
tery pulled  down  their  edifice  and  erected  it  at  a  greater 
distance  from  the  Po. 

To  keep  this  wild  stream  within  bounds,  a  general  sys- 
tem of  embankment,  through  the  plains  of  Northern 
Italy,  was  commenced  in  the  thirteenth  century,  which 
has  continually  been  increased  until  the  present  time. 
The  increased  velocity  of  the  river,  in  consequence  of  its 
being  thus  confined,  causes  it  to  transport  to  the  sea  a  much 
greater  quantity  of  alluvial  matter  than  it  would  otherwise 
do,  because  there  are  no  sluggish  intervals  where  its 
waters  can  deposit  their  sediment.  Hence  the  delta  of 
the  Po,  even  since  the  memory  of  man,  has  greatly  increas- 
ed. The  ancient  city  of  Adria  was  originally  a  sea  port 
of  the  Adriatic,  but  it  is  now  twenty  miles  from  the  shore. 
In  the  twelfth  century,  Adria  was  about  six  miles  from  the 
shore,  the  Po  having  added  fourteen  miles  of  alluvial 
soil  since  that  period. 

But  notwithstanding  more  alluvial  matter  is  carried  into 
the  sea  in  consequence  of  this  embankment,  more  is  also 
deposited  in  its  bed;  for  that  which  would  be  spread  upon, 
the  plains  during  an  overflow  is  now  confined  within  the 
narrow  limits  of  its  banks.  In  consequence  of  this  con- 
stant deposition,  it  is  found  necessary  every  year  to  re- 
move the  mud  and  sand  from  the  bed  of  the  river,  and 
place  it  on  the  embankment,  otherwise  the  water  would 
be  in  danger  of  breaking  through,  and  destroying  the 
whole  plain  below. 

This  system  has  been  so  long  continued,  that  at  the 
present  day,  the  Po  crosses  its  plains  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance, on  the  top  of  a  high  and  continued  mou-nd  like  the 
4* 


42  FALLS  OF  NIAGARA. 

waters  of  an  aqueduct,  and  to  the  great  hazard  and  terror 
of  the  people  in  the  valleys  every  spring. 

M.  de  Prony,  who  has  recently  been  employed  by  govern- 
ment, to  examine  the  present  condition  of  this  river,  and  if 
possible  to  suggest  some  method  of  security  against  a  ca- 
tastrophe which  every  year  threatens  the  lives  and  proper- 
ty of  so  many  inhabitants,  ascertained  that  the  bed  of  the 
Po  is  now  higher  than  the  roofs  of  the  houses  in  the  city 
of  Ferrara,  near  which  it  runs.  The  magnitude  of  these 
barriers,  already  so  immense,  it  is  found  necessary  to  in- 
crease every  year,  to  prevent  an  inundation. — Lyell  and 
Cuvicr. 

When  we  consider  that  the  smallest  stream  breaking 
through  or  running  over  this  embankment,  would,  if  not 
discovered  within  a  few  seconds,  destroy,  in  spite  of  all 
human  power,  many  cities,  towns,  and  villages,  with  all 
their  inhabitants,  we  may  in  some  degree  conceive  of  the 
constant  anxiety  which  those  must  feel  who  reside  within 
the  danger. 

Falls  of  Niagc  ra.  This  is  the  most  magnificent  water- 
fall in  the  world.  It  is  situated  between  lake  Erie  above, 
and  lake  Ontario  below,  the  cataract  being  formed  by  the 
passage  of  the  water  from  one  lake  to  the  other.  The 
distance  between  the  nearest  shores  of  these  lakes  is  about 
thirty-seven  miles,  and  the  height  of  Erie  above  Ontario 
is,  according  to  Mr.  Featherstonhaugh,  322  feet.  On 
flowing  out  of  the  upper  lake,  the  river  is  almost  on  a 
level  with  its  banks,  so  that  if  it  should  rise  perpendicular- 
ly eight  or  ten  feet,  it  would  lay  under  water  the  adjacent 
flat  country  of  Upper  Canada  on  the  west,  and  part  of  the 
State  of  New- York  on  the  east.  The  river  where  it 
issues,  is  about  twenty-five  feet  deep,  and  three  quarters  of 
a  mile  wide.  Its  descent  is  fifty  feet  in  half  a  mile.  Goat 
Island,  at  the  very  verge  of  the  cataract,  divides  the  water 
into  two  parts.  The  stream  on  the  American  side  is  1,072 
feet  wide ;  and  the  curvature  of  the  great  Horse-shoe  fall 
is  2,376  feet  wide,  making  the  width  of  the  whole  at  the 
falls,  3,448  feet. 

Although  the  aggregate  descent  from  Erie  to  Ontario  is 
322  feet,  the  perpendicular  fall  at  the  cataract  is  less  than 
one  half  this  distance. 

The  following  particulars  are  from  Mr.  Featherston- 
haugh's  journal. 


FALLS  OF  NIAGARA.  43 

feet         miles. 

Fall  from  Erie  to  the  rapids  above  the  Cata- 
ract of  Niagara,  15  in  23 
Fall  of  the  rapids  to  the  edge  of  the  Cata- 
ract,                                                                  51  % 
Fall  of  the  Horse  shoe  Cataract,                       150 
From  Horse-shoe  fall  to  Lewiston,                   104  >       .  „ 
From  Lewiston  to  Ontario,                                   2  $ 

322         36i- 

There  is  no  doubt  but  the  Falls  of  Niagara  at  some  re- 
mote period,  were  at  Q,ueenstown,  which  is  about  seven 
miles  below  their  present  situation.  The  breadth  of  the 
gorge  or  excavation  made  by  the  waters,  is,  on  approach- 
ing the  falls,  about  1200  feet,  but  is  much  narrower  to- 
wards Q,ueenstown. 

The  kind  of  rock  through  which  it  passes  consists  of 
limestone  and  shale,  the  latter  a  dark  coloured  shelly  form- 
ation, 80  feet  thick,  lying  under  the  limestone.  The 
limestone  is  70  feet  thick,  above  which  is  the  ordinary 
soil  of  the  country. 

The  limestone  is  hard,  and  lies  in  horizontal  strata  at 
the  edge  of  the  falls ;  but  the  shale  is  soft,  and  is  acted  upon 
with  much  greater  facility  than  the  limestone,  so  that  the 
latter  rock  often  overhangs  the  former  perhaps  forty  feet 
at  the  edge  of  the  precipice. 

The  blasts  of  wind  charged  with  spray,  which  rise  out 
of  the  pool  into  which  this  enormous  cascade  is  projected, 
strike  against  the  shale  beds,  so  that  their  disintegration 
is  constant ;  and  the  superincumbent  projecting  limestone 
being  left  without  a  foundation  falls  from  time  to  time  in 
immense  rocky  masses.  When  these  enormous  fragments 
fall,  a  shock  is  felt,  often  at  considerable  distances,  ac- 
companied by  a  noise  resembling  a  distant  clap  of 
thunder. 

The  waters  which  expand  at  the  falls,  where  they  are 
divided  by  the  island,  are  contracted  again  after  their  union 
into  a  stream  averaging  not  more  than  500  feet  broad. 
In  the  narrow  channel,  immediately  below  this  immense 
rush  of  waters,  a  boat  may  pass  across  the  stream  with 
safety.  The  pool  into  which  the  cataract  is  precipitated 
being  170  feet  deep,  the  descending  water  sinks  down  and 
forms  an  under  current,  while  a  superficial  eddy  carries  the 


44  FALLS  OF  NIAGARA. 

upper  stratum  back  towards  the  main  fall. — See  Mr. 
Bakewell,  Jr.,  on  the  falls  of  Niagara,  London  Maga 
zine,  1830. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  the  falls  of  Niagara  were  once  at 
Queenstown,  as  above  stated  and  have  gradually  cut  their 
way  through  the  rock  to  their  present  situation. 

Mr.  Lyell,  who  refers  all  the  changes  which  have  taken 
place  on  the  earth's  surface  to  "causes  now  in  opera- 
tion," states  that  the  recession  of  the  falls  have  been  at  the 
rate  of  fifty  yards  in  forty  years,  and  therefore  a  little 
more  than  three  feet  on  an  average  in  each  year. 

If  the  ratio  of  recession  says  he,  "  had  never  exceeded 
fifty  yards  in  forty  years,  it  must  have  required  nearly 
ten  thousand  years  for  the  excavation  of  the  wrhole  ravine ; 
but  no  probable  conjecture  can  be  offered  as  to  the  quan- 
tity of  time  consumed  in  such  an  operation,  because  the 
retrograde  movement  may  have  been  much  more  rapid 
when  the  whole  current  was  confined  within  a  space  not 
exceeding  a  fourth,  or  a  fifth  part  of  that  which  the  falls 
now  occupy.  Should  the  erosive  action  not  be  accele- 
rated in  future,  it  will  take  upwards  of  thirty  thousand 
years  for  the  falls  to  reach  lake  Erie  (twenty-five  miles 
distant)  to  which  they  seem  destined  to  arrive  in  the 
course  of  time,  unless  some  earthquake  changes  the  rela- 
tive levels  of  the  districts.  The  table  land  extending  from 
lake  Erie,  consists  uniformly  of  the  same  geological  for- 
mations as  are  now  exposed  at  the  falls.  The  upper 
stratum  is  an  ancient  alluvial  sand,  varying  in  thickness 
from  10  to  140  feet ;  below  which  is  a  bed  of  hard  lime- 
stone about  90  feet  in  thickness,  stretching  nearly  in  a 
horizontal  direction  over  the  whole  country,  and  forming 
the  bed  of  the  river  above  the  falls,  as  do  the  inferior 
shales  below.  The  lower  shale  is  nearly  of  the  same 
thickness  of  the  limestone." 

"  Should  lake  Erie  remain  in  its  present  state  until  the 
period  when  the  ravine  recedes  to  its  shores,  the  sudden 
escape  of  that  great  body  of  water  would  cause  a  tremen- 
dous deluge,  for  the  ravine  would  be  more  than  sufficient 
[in  depth  we  suppose,]  to  drain  the  whole  lake,  of  which 
the  average  depth  was  found,  during  the  late  surveys,  to  be 
ten  or  twelve  fathoms." — Lyell' s  Geology,  vol.  1,  page 
179—182. 

Such  is  the  tenor  of  Mr.  Lyell's  reasoning  when  at- 
tempting to  "  explain  the  former  changes  of  the  earth's 


FALLS  OF  NIAGARA.  45 

surface  by  reference  to  causes  now  in  operation;"  and 
thus  to  deny  the  Mosaic  history  of  the  creation,  and  of  the 
deluge. 

Although  he  owns  that  no  probable  conjecture  can  be 
afforded  with  respect  to  the  time  which  has  elapsed  since 
the  falls  of  Niagara  were  at  Queenstown,  still,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  impression  intended  to  be  left  on  the  mind  of  the 
reader  is,  that  it  was  about  10,000  years  ago;  that  is,  about 
4,000  years  before  the  creation  of  the  world,  according  to 
Moses,  these  falls  were  at  Q,ueenstown.  And  at  some  future 
period,  say  30,000  years  hence,  there  will  be  a  great  flood 
in  America,  just  as  there  have  happened  great  floods  at 
different  periods  according  to  what  he  calls  the  "uniform- 
ity of  the  order  of  nature." 

Now  let  us  see,  in  the  first  place,  whether  the  data  stated 
by  the  author,  can  possibly  \varrant  the  supposition  that 
the  falls  of  Niagara  have  been  10,000  years,  or  even  half 
that  time,  in  passing  from  Glueenstown  to  their  present  lo- 
cation. 

Mr.  Lyell,  who  quotes  Capt.  Basil  Hall  for  his  author- 
ity, makes  the  falls  800  yards  wide  at  the  verge  of  the  pre- 
cipice :  viz.  the  American  fall  200  yards,  and  the  Horse-shoe 
fall  600  yards  wide.  The  channel  below  the  falls  towards 
Queenstown,  according  to  the  same  authority,  is  160  yards 
wide.  Mr.  Featherstonhaugh,  (Monthly  American  Jour- 
nal, No.  1,)  we  have  already  seen,  makes  all  these  widths 
more  considerable.  But  we  will  take  Mr.  LyelPs  own 
account. 

The  old  channel  being  160  yards  wide,  is  exactly  one 
fifth  the  width  of  the  present  falls.  Now  supposing  the 
retrograde  movement  of  the  cataract  had  been  in  propor- 
tion to  its  width,  then  according  to  Mr.  Lyell's  estimate  it 
could  have  been  only  2000  years  in  travelling  from 
Queenstown  to  its  present  place;  for  160  being  a  fifth  of 
800,  and  allowing  the  present  movement  to  be  at  the  rate 
of  7  miles  in  10,000  years,  then,  being  only  a  fifth  as  wide, 
anciently  as  now,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  moved 
at  least  five  times  as  fast.  But  reasoning  from  the  data 
before  us  the  time  must  have  been  even  less  than  2,000 
years,  for  it  is  plain  that  a  given  quantity  of  water,  say  a 
yard  in  breadth,  would  perform  the  work  of  excavation 
more  than  five  times  as  rapidly  as  it  would  if  spread  over 
five  yards  in  breadth.  It  is  however  but  fair  to  state  that 
the  falls  at  Queenstown  were  not  so  high  as  they  are  at 


46  FALLS  OF  XlA^Afc.1. 

present,  and  therefore,  estimating  the  quantity  of  water 
the  same  as  at  present,  the  movement  must  have  been  slow- 
er than  now.  For,  we  know  that  the  denudatmg,  or  ex- 
cavating power  of  water,  bears  not  only  a  proportion  to 
its  depth  and  rapidity,  but  also  to  the  heighth  from  which 
it  falls,  so  that  cataracts  of  little  elevation  produce  no  per- 
ceptible effects  for  centuries,  while,  if  the  same  quantity  of 
water  were  precipitated  from  a  height  of  several  hundred 
feet,  the  whole  precipice  would  gradually  retrograde  up 
the  stream.  Allowing,  therefore,  that  the  falls  moved 
only  at  half  the  rate  above  estimated,  this  would  fix  the 
time  at  4000  years  since  they  were  at  Queenstown. 

Now,  without  giving  any  opinion  as  to  the  real 
epoch,  when  this  cataract  was  at  Queenstown,  for  there  are 
no  grounds  on  which  such  an  opinion  ought  to  be  formed; 
still  we  must  be  permitted  to  say,  that  according  to  the 
data  Mr.Lyell  has  given  us,  it  is  quite  plain  that  the  cata- 
ract of  Niagara  could  not  have  been  more  than  3  or  4000 
years  in  moving  from  Queenstown  to  its  present  place, 
instead  of  10,000  years,  which  impression,  if  any,  he 
conveys. 

American  Deluge.  With  respect  to  the  deluge  which 
Mr.  Lyell  predicts  will  happen  about  30,000  years  hence  in 
North  America,  we  will  state  the  grounds  on  which  his 
profoundly  scientific  vision  presages  a  catastrophe  so  aw- 
ful to  this  devoted  country. 

"It  was,"  says  he  "contrary  to  analogy  to  suppose  that 
nature  had  been  at  any  former  epoch,  parsimonious  of  time, 
and  prodigal  of  violence,  to  imagine  that  one  district  was 
not  at  rest  Avhile  another  was  convulsed — that  the  disturb- 
ing forces  were  not  kept  under  subjection,  so  as  never  to 
carry  simultaneous  desolation  over  the  whole  earth,  or 
even  over  one  great  region."  ****.  "In  speculating  on 
catastrophes  by  water,  we  may  certainly  expect  great 
floods  in  future,  and  we  therefore  presume  that  they  have 
happened  again  and  again  in  past  times.  The  existence 
of  enormous  seas  of  fresh  water,  such  as  the  North  Ame- 
rican lakes,  the  largest  of  which  is  elevated  more  than 
600  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ocean,  and  is  in  part  1200 
feet  deep,  is  alone  sufficient  to  assure  us,  that  the  time  will 
come,  however  distant,  when  a  deluge  will  lay  waste  a 
considerable  part  of  the  American  continent.  No  hypo- 
thetical agency  is  required  to  cause  the  sudden  escape  of 


FALLS  OF    NIAGARA.  47 

the  confined  waters.  Such  changes  of  level  and  opening 
of  fissures,  as  have  accompanied  earthquakes  since  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century,  or  such  excava- 
tions of  ravines  as  the  receding  cataract  of  Niagara  is  now 
effecting,  might  break  the  barriers.  Notwithstanding, 
therefore,  that  we  have  not  witnessed  within  the  last  3000 
years  the  devastation  by  deluge  of  a  large  continent,  yet 
as  we  may  predict  the  future  occurrence  of  such  catastro- 
phes, we  are  authorized  to  regard  them  as  part  of  the 
present  order  of  nature,  and  they  may  be  introduced  into 

feological  speculations  respecting  the  past,  provided  we 
o  not  imagine  them  to  have  been  more  frequent,  or  gen- 
eral than  we  expect  them  to  be  in  time  to  come." — Prin- 
ciples of  Geology,  vol.  1,  p.  88. 

It  is  on  such  grounds  that  one  of  the  most  voluminous 
and  learned  among  the  recent  English  geologists  disputes 
the  Mosaic  history  of  the  deluge;  and  we  have  introduced 
the  above  extract  to  show,  that  even  men  of  argument  on 
other  subjects,  often  reason  in  the  most  ridiculous  man- 
ner, and  on  grounds  totally  false,  when  they  undertake  to 
deny  the  truth  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

Mr.  Lyell's  argument  runs  thus.  "Because  there  are 
groat  lakes  in  North  America  situated  600  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  because  the  cataract  of  Niagara  is  receding  to- 
wards these  lakes  at  the  rate  of  fifty  yards  in  forty  years; 
therefore  we  may  anticipate  great  floods  in  future,  and  we 
therefore  presume  that  they  have  happened  again  and 
again  in  past  times."  Consequently  we  must  presume 
that  all  the  changes  the  earth  has  undergone  by  water, 
have  been  produced  by  such  catastrophes,  and  therefore 
Noah's  flood  never  happened,  and  so  the  Mosaic  history 
:s  not  to  be  believed. 

It  is  plain  that  Mr.  Lyell's  zeal  to  show  that  there 
has  been  no  universal  deluge,  made  him  forget,  that  in 
another  part  of  his  volume  he  states  that  the  quantity  of 
sediment  which  is  every  year  deposited  in  lake  Erie  is 
such,  that  it  will  finally  be  filled  up  and  become  dry  land, 
and  as  he  does  not  expect  the  cataract  of  Niagara  will 
drain  this  lake  until  the  end  of  30,000  years,  we  may  hope 
that  it  will  become  solid  within  that  period. 

But  independently  of  this  oversight,  no  person  of  the 
least  reflection,  Avhether  geologist  or  not,  would  for  a  mo- 
ment believe  that  a  lake,  formed  like  a  dish,  and  surround- 
ed on  all  sides  by  solid  limestone  rocks  90  feet  thick,  as 


48  V/KIYS  MOUNTAINS. 

Erie  is,  could  be  drained  to  its  bottom  in  a  few  hours  by 
the  action  of  its  own  waters.  Suppose  the  cataract  of 
Niagara  now  at  the  outlet  of  lake  Erie  and  moving  into  it 
at  the  rate  of  50  yards  in  40  years,  or  a  little  more  than  a 
yard  per  year,  we  would  inquire  of  Mr.  Lyell  how  long  a 
period  would  be  consumed  in  draining  it  to  the  bottom, 
and  whether  the  escape  of  its  waters  thus  sudden  "  would 
cause  a  tremendous  deluge,"  as  he  asserts. 

The  title  of  Mr.  LyelPsbook  being,  "  An  attempt  to  ex- 
plain the  former  changes  of  the  Earth's  surface,  by  re- 
ference to  causes  now  in  operation"  is  itself  an  attack  on 
the  sacred  Scriptures,  but  we  are  happy  to  believe  that 
Christianity  is  in  little  danger  from  his  arguments. 

Mountain  Slides.  Instances  have  happened  in  various 
parts  of  the  world,  where  considerable  changes  have  been 
produced  in  the  surface  of  the  globe,  by  the  sliding  of  large 
portions  of  earth,  together  with  fragments  of  rocks,  from 
the  declivities  of  mountains.  These  changes  are  readily 
distinguished  from  those  occasioned  by  the  general 
deluge,  not  only  by  their  local  and  more  recent  appear- 
ance, but  also  by  the  direction  in  which  these  precipitated 
rocks  remain  with  respect  to  the  range  of  the  mountain 
from  which  they  have  fallen.  For  the  great  currents  of 
the  deluge  left  their  effect  in  lines  corresponding  with  the 
ranges  of  most  of  the  high  mountains  and  considerable 
valleys,  where  they  are  still  to  be  seen;  whereas  occasion- 
al slides  leave  their  effects  at  the  feet  of  the  mountains,  in 
piles,  or  downward  ranges. 

Slide  of  the  White  Mountains.  The  White  Moun- 
tains are  situated  in  New  Hampshire,  and  are  the  highest 
land  in  New-England.  The  slide  to  be  described  took 
place  in  August,  1826,  and  was  in  consequence  of  the  fall 
of  an  immense  quantity  of  rain  on  the  mountain. 

On  both  sides  of  the  river  Saco,  innumerable  rocks  and 
stone,  many  of  them  of  sufficient  size  to  fill  a  common 
apartment,  were  detached,  and  in  their  descent  swept  down 
before  them  in  one  promiscuous  and  frightful  ruin,  forest 
shrubs,  and  the  earth  in  which  they  grew.  No  tradition 
existed  of  any  similar  catastrophe  at  former  times,  and  the 
growth  of  the  forests  on  the  flanks  of  the  mountain  clearly 
proved,  that  at  least  for  a  long  interval,  nothing  similar 
had  occurred.  One  of  these  moving  masses  was  af.er- 


FLOOD  OF  BAGNES.  49 

wards  found  to  have  slid  three  miles,  consisting  of  rocks, 
earth,  trees,  &c.,  with  an  average  breadth  of  a  quarter 
of  a  mile.  The  excavations  commenced  generally  in 
a  trench  a  few  yards  in  depth,  and  a  few  rods  in  width, 
and  descended  the  mountain,  widening  and  deepen- 
ing until  they  became  vast  chasms.  Forests  of  spruce 
and  hemlock  were  apparently  prostrated  with  as  much 
ease  as  if  they  had  been  fields  of  grain.  The  valleys  of 
the  rivers  Amunoosuck  and  Saco  presented  for  many 
miles,  an  uninterrupted  scene  of  desolation;  all  the  bridges 
being  carried  away  and  the  ground  strewed  with  the 
wrecks  of  trees  and  rocks,  and  in  many  instances  large 
quantities  of  soil.  In  some  places  the  road  was  excava- 
ted to  the  depth  of  1 5  or  20  feet ;  and  in  others  it  was  co- 
vered with  rocks,  trees  and  soil  to  as  great  a  height.  In 
various  places,  as  shown  by  the  remaining  marks,  the 
water  rose  to  the  height  of  25  feet  above  its  ordinary 
level. 

But  these  thing  are  of  little  consequence  when  com- 
pared with  the  human  suffering  which  this  catastrophe 
occasioned,  for  a  family  of  nine  persons  were  destroyed  on 
the  night  of  the  28th,  and  not  one  lived  to  relate  the  cir- 
cumstances. 

This  family,  named  Willey,  occupied  a  house  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountain,  a  most  lonely  place,  six  miles  from 
any  other  human  habitation.  It  was  a  resting  place  for 
travellers.  On  the  morning  of  the  28th  the  house  was 
found  standing  but  not  a  human  being  was  there.  In 
the  course  of  a  few  days  seven  out  of  the  nine  bodies 
were  found  at  a  short  distance  below  the  house,  buried 
under  the  ruins  of  the  mountain,  and  most  of  them 
shockingly  mangled.  It  appeared  that  one  of  the  heaviest 
slides  from  the  top  of  the  mountain  had  rushed  in  the 
most  impetuous  manner  towards  the  house,  but  when 
within  six  feet  of  it  had  divided,  and  passed  on  each  side, 
leaving  the  house  untouched,  but  sweeping  away  the  sta- 
bles and  horses.  At  this  time  it  is  supposed  that  the  fami- 
ly left  the  house,  and  met  their  destruction ;  had  they  re- 
mained, all  would  have  been  safe, — Silliman's  Journal 
for  January,  1829. 

Flood  in  the  Valley  of  Bagnes,  in  1818.     The  Valley 
of  Bagnes  forms  a  part  of  the  main  valley  of  the  Rhone, 
above  the  lake  of  Geneva,  in  Switzerland.     Through  this 
5 


50  FLOOD  OF  BAGNES. 

valley  passes  the  river  Dranse,  which  falls  into  the  Rhone 
above  the  lake.  In  1 8 1 8,  in  consequence  of  the  fall  of  ava- 
lanches, the  Dranse  was  completely  dammed  up,  so  that  a 
barrier  of  ice  remained  across  its  channel,  until  the  melting 
of  the  snow  in  the  spring,  formed  a  lake  in  its  bed,  a  mile 
and  a  half  in  length,  about  seven  hundred  feet  wide,  and 
in  some  places  two  hundred  feet  deep.  To  prevent  the 
consequences  apprehended  from  the  sudden  bursting  of 
this  barrier,  the  people  cut  a  tunnel  through  it,  several 
hundred  feet  in  length,  before  the  water  had  risen  to  any 
considerable  height.  When  the  water  had  accumulated 
so  as  to  reach  this  tunnel,  or  gallery,  it  ran  through,  and 
melting  the  ice  it  drained  oft  about  one  half  of  the  lake. 
But  at  length,  on  the  approach  of  the  hot  season,  the  cen- 
tral portion  of  the  remaining  mass  of  ice  gave  way  with  a 
tremendous  crash,  and  the  residue  of  the  lake  was  emp- 
tied in  half  an  hour.  In  the  course  of  its  descent,  the  wa- 
ter encountered  several  narrow  gorges,  and  at  each  of  these 
it  rose  to  a  great  height,  and  then  bursting  its  barriers, 
rushed  forward  with  increased  violence,  sweeping  along 
rocks,  hous  s,  trees,  bridges,  and  cultivated  lands.  For 
the  greater  part  of  its  course,  the  flood  resembled  a  moving 
mass  of  rocks  and  mud,  rather  than  of  water.  Some  frag- 
ments of  primary  rock  of  enormous  magnitude,  and  which 
from  their  dimensions,  might  be  compared,  without  exag- 
geration, to  houses,  were  torn  out  of  a  more  ancient  allu- 
vion, and  borne  down  for  a  quarter  of  a  mile.  The  veloci- 
ty of  the  water  in  the  first  part  of  its  course,  was  thirty- 
three  feet  per  second,  which  diminished  to  six  feet,  before 
it  reached  the  lake  of  Geneva,  where  it  arrived  in  six 
hours,  the  distance  being  45  miles. 

This  flood  left  behind  it  on  the  plains  of  Martigny,  thou- 
sands of  trees  torn  up  by  the  roots,  together  \vith  the  frag- 
ments of  many  buildings.  Some  of  the  houses  in  the  town 
of  Martigny  were  filled  with  mud  up  to  the  second  story. 
After  expanding"  in  the  plain,  where  the  town  stands,  it 
passed  into  the  Rhone,  and  did  no  further  damage.  Ma- 
ny lives  were  destroyed  by  this  flood,  and  the  bodies  of 
several  persons  were  found  on  the  surface  of  the  Geneva 
lake,  thirty  miles  from  the  place  where  they  were  swept 
away. 

Inundations  precisely  similar,  and  from  the  same  cause, 
are  recorded  to  have  happened  in  former  periods.  In 
1 595,  the  town  of  Martigny  was  destroyed  by  such  a  flood, 


^ED  BY 


CHANGES  EFFECTED  BY  SPRINGS.  51 

and  from  sixty  to  eighty  persons  perished ;  and  in  a  simi- 
lar catastrophe  which  took  place,,  fifty  years  before,  one 
hundred  and  forty  persons  lost  their  lives. 

For  several  months  after  the  debacle  just  described,  the 
river  Dranse,  having  no  settled  channel,  shifted  its  posi- 
tion continually  from  one  side  to  the  other  of  the  valley, 
carrying  away  newly  erected  bridges,  undermining  houses, 
and  continuing  to  be  charged  with  as  large  a  quantity  of 
earthy  matter  as  the  fluid  could  hold  in  suspension." — 
See  Ed,  Phil.  Jour.  vol.  1.  p.  178:  and  LyelVs  Geology, 
vol.  1.  p.  194. 

Now  although  we  have  no  disposition  to  deny  that  great 
changes  have  been  wrought  on  the  face  of  the  earth  by 
the  power  of  running  streams,  the  bursting  of  lakes,  &c. 
yet  all  these  effects  combined,  utterly  fail  to  account  for 
the  appearances  enumerated  under  the  article  "  Deluge." 
The  phenomena  presented  by  the  great  valleys  of  the  Alps, 
the  Pyrenees,  and  the  Jura,  cannot  be  attributed  to  any 
cause,  but  a  sudden  and  mighty  torrent  of  water,  such  as 
no  one  has  thought  fit  to  ascribe  to  the  bursting  of  a  lake, 
and  of  which  history  contains  no  account,  except  that  of 
the  Noachian  deluge. 


CHANGES  EFFECTED  BY  SPRINGS. 

The  Theory  of  springs  will  be  reserved  for  another  place. 
At  present,  our  object  will  be  to  show  the  effects  which 
springs  have  had  in  changing  the  surface  of  the  globe. 

It  is  obvious  that  springs  of  pure  water,  unless  uncom- 
monly powerful,  will  produce  but  little  effect  on  the  surface 
along  which  they  run,  and  with  a  few  exceptions,  their  ex- 
cavating effects  are  scarcely  to  be  taken  into  account.  But 
springs  which  contain  carbonic  acid  gas,  often  hold  con- 
siderable quantities  of  calcareous  matter  in  solution,  and 
which  is  deposited  along  their  courses,  producing  what  geo- 
logists term  calcareous  tufa,  or  travertine. 

These  deposites  are  generally  porous,  and  mixed  with 
leaves,  bits  of  wood,  mud,  &c.  but  when  more  pure,  they 
are  so  solid  as  to  be  employed  for  building  stones.  Ma- 
ny of  these  springs  are  thermal,  or  warm,  and  abound 
chiefly  in  volcanic  countries. 

In  those  parts  of  France  and  Italy  which  skirt  the  Ap- 


5&  SAN    FILLIPPO. 

ennmes,  innumerable  mineral  springs,  chiefly  containing 
carbonate  of  lime,  issue  from  the  ground.  As  the  water 
evaporates,  the  lime  is  left  on  the  surface,  and  thus  the 
ground  in  some  parts  of  Tuscany  is  covered  to  a  consider- 
able extent  with  the  kind  of  deposite  called  Travertine, 
already  noticed.  In  some  places  these  deposites  are  solid 
and  smooth  on  the  surface,  much  resembling  currents  of 
lava. 

Baths  of  San  Vignone.  This  spring  is  also  in  Tusca- 
ny, and  affords  a  striking  example  of  the  rapid  precipita- 
tion of  carbonate  of  lim«  from  thermal  waters.  The  spring 
issues  from  near  the  summit  of  a  hill  about  one  hundred 
feet  high.  The  water  is  hot,  but  Mr.  Lyell,  from  whom 
this  account  is  taken,  does  not  give  its  temperature. 

So  rapid  is  the  deposition  from  this  water,  that  a  pipe 
leading  from  the  spring  to  the  baths,  and  inclined  at  an  an- 
gle of  thirty  degrees,  is  found  to  contain  a  coat  of  solid 
limestone  half,  a  foot  thick  every  year.  A  mass  of  solid 
rock  below  the  hill,  formed  by  this  water,  is  two  hundred 
feet  thick.  This  is  employed  as  a  building  stone,  and  in 
quarrying  it,  Roman  remains  of  art,  such  as  tiles,  have 
been  found  five  or  six  feet  below  the  surface,  being  covered 
by  the  deposite. 

Baths  of  San  Filippo.  These  baths  are  situated  only 
a  few  miles  from  those  already  described.  The  waters 
which  supply  them  are  impregnated  with  carbonate  of 
lime,  and  sulphate  of  lime,  (gypsum.)  They  flow  from 
the  spring  immediately  into  a  pond  where  in  twenty  years 
a  solid  rock  is  deposited  thirty  feet  thick.  A  curious 
manufactory  which  produces  medallions  in  basso-reliei:o  is 
carried  on  at  this  place. 

The  water  is  first  allowed  to  stand  in  a  cistern  where 
the  sulphate  of  lime  is  deposited.  It  is  then  conveyed  to 
a  chamber  through  a  tube,  from  the  end  of  which  it  falls 
ten  or  twelve  feet,  the  current  being  broken  by  numerous 
small  sticks  crossing  each  other,  and  by  which  means  the 
spray  is  dispersed  around  the  room.  Here  are  placed  the 
moulds  of  the  medallions  to  be  formed,  which  are  first 
rubbed  over  with  a  little  soap.  The  water  striking  on 
these  moulds  leaves  particles  of  carbonate  of  lime,  which 
gradually  increasing,  leaves  exact  and  beautifully  white 
casts  of  their  figures. 


SILICIOUS    SPRINGS.  53 

The  solid  matter  left  by  this  spring,  is  a  mass  of  lime- 
stone and  gypsum  rock,  a  mile  and  a  quarter  long,  the  third 
of  a  mile  in  breadth,  and  in  some  places  at  least  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  in  thickness.  The  length  of  this  depo- 
site  terminates  abruptly,  being  crossed  by  a  small  stream, 
which  carries  away  the  undeposited  matter  with  the  waters 
of  the  spring,  otherwise  it  would  have  been  much  more 
extensive. 

The  quantity  of  matter  deposited  from  these  springs, 
show  the  newness  of  the  earth,  or  at  least  of  the  present 
order  of  things  on  its  surface ;  for  had  they  existed  at  the 
period  when  Mr.  Lyell  supposes  the  cataract  of  Niagara 
was  at  Queenstown,  and  discharged  their  waters,  and  form- 
ed depositions  as  they  do  at  the  present  day,  and  which  it 
is  certain  they  did  at  the  time  of  the  Romans,  these  strata 
ought  to  have  been  at  least  ten  thousand  feet  thick.  It  is 
true,  however,  that  these  thermal  springs  being  caused  by 
volcanic  heat,  might  have  been  formed  within  the  last  two 
thousand  years. 

It  is  apparent  from  what  has  been  stated  concerning  cal- 
careous springs,  that  in  the  lapse  of  ages  considerable  chan- 
ges must  have  been  made  in  the  earth's  surface  from  this 
source.  But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  this  cause  is  lo- 
cal in  its  nature,  being  confined  chiefly  to  volcanic  districts ; 
and  that  even  such  districts  seldom  contain  springs  which 
work  such  changes  as  are  above  described. 

Silicious  Springs.  Although  we  possess  no  chemical 
process  by  which  water  can  be  made  to  dissolve  pure  silex, 
or  flint,  yet  in  the  great  laboratory  of  nature,  this  effect  is 
produced.  There  is,  however,  a  process  in  chemistry,  in 
which  by  a  previous  combination,  silex  becomes  soluble  in 
water,  and  which,  perhaps,  affords  an  analogy  to  the  pro- 
cess employed  by  nature.  If  silex  be  finely  pulverized, 
and  then  melted  with  a  quantity  of  common  alkali,  the 
whole  becomes  soluble  in  hot  water.  Now  springs  con- 
taining any  considerable  quantity  of  silex,  are  always  of 
high  temperatures ;  and  it  is  to  the  great  degree  of  heat 
which  exists  at  their  sources,  together  with  small  portions 
of  alkali  which  volcanic  rocks  contain,  and  which  the 
water  dissolves,  that  we  are  to  attribute  the  property  these 
waters  possess,  of  holding  silex  in  solution.  Springs  con- 
taining any  considerable  quantity  of  silex,  are,  however, 
exceedingly  rare,  and  are  mentioned  here,  rather  on  thi* 


54  GEYSERS. 

account,  than  for  the  changes  they  have  produced  on  the 
earth's  surface. 

Springs  of  St.  Michael.  The  hot  springs  of  St. 
Michael,  one  of  the  Azores,  have  been  long  celebrated. 
These  waters  rise  from  among  volcanic  rocks,  and  hold 
large  quantities  of  silex  in  solution.  As  the  waters  de- 
scend from  the  fountain,  they  deposite  their  silex  in  the 
form  of  what  is  termed  silicious  sinter,  which  may  be 
considered  as  answering  to  the  travertine,  or  tufa,  of  calca- 
reous springs. 

The  herbage  and  leaves  along  the  course  of  the  stream 
are  more  or  less  encrusted  with  silex,  and  exhibit  all  the 
successive  steps  of  petrifaction,  from  a  soft  state  to  a  com- 
plete conversion  into  stone.  Branches  of  ferns,  such  as 
now  grow  in  the  vicinity,  are  thus  changed,  still  preserv- 
ing their  appearance  of  vegetation,  except  that  they  have 
acquired  an  ash  grey  colour. — Dr.  Webster,  Ed.  Phil. 
Jour. 

Geysers  of  Iceland.  But  the  Geysers  of  Iceland  afford 
the  most  remarkable  examples  of  the  deposition  of  silex. 
These  springs  are  situated  in  a  volcanic  district,  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  out  of  which  they  rise  being  covered 
with  streams  of  ancient  lava,  through  the  fissures  of  which, 
steam,  and  hot  water,  are  emitted  in  various  places. 

The  great  Geyser,  which  has  excited  so  much  interest, 
on  account  of  the  singular  phenomena  which  it  exhibits, 
rises  out  of  a  basin  at  the  summit  of  a  circular  mound, 
composed  of  silicious  incrustations  deposited  from  the 
spray  of  its  waters.  The  diameter  of  this  basin  or  crater 
is  56  feet  in  one  direction,  and  46  in  the  other. 

In  the  centre  of  this  basin  is  .a  natural  pipe  seventy- 
eight  feet  in  perpendicular  depth,  and  from  eight  to  ten 
feet  in  diameter,  gradually  widening  as  it  opens  into  the 
basin.  The  basin,  as  the  spring  intermits,  is  sometimes 
empty,  but  is  more  commonly  filled  with  beautifully  trans- 
parent boiling  hot  water,  which  is  often  in  a  state  of  vio- 
lent ebullition.  During  the  rise  of  the  water  up  the  pipe, 
especially  when  the  ebullition  is  most  violent,  subterra- 
nean noises  are  heard,  like  the  distant  firing  of  cannon, 
and  a  slight  tremor  of  the  earth  is  felt  near  the  place. 
The  sound  then  increases,  and  the  motion  of  the  earth  be- 
comes more  violent,  until  at  length  a  column  of  water  is 


GEYSERS.  55 

thrown  up  from  the  pipe,  in  a  perpendicular  direction  to 
the  height  of  from  one  to  two  hundred  feet,  attended  with 
loud  explosions.  This  is  continued,  with  interruptions 
like  an  artificial  fountain,  for  a  few  minutes,  the  water  at 
the  same  time  giving  off  immense  quantities  of  steam  and 
vapor,  when  the  pipe  is  evacuated  by  the  discharge  of 
its  whole  contents  of  water,  and  there  follows  an  immense 
column  of  steam,  which  rushes  up  with  amazing  force 
and  a  loud  thundering  noise,  after  which  the  eruption,  or 
paroxysm  terminates,  and  the  Geyser  becomes  quiet. 

If  stones  are  thrown  into  the  pipe,  or  crater,  during  an 
eruption,  they  are  instantly  ejected,  and  such  is  the  explo- 
sive force  of  the  steam,  that  masses  of  hard  rock  thrown 
in,  are  returned  into  the  air,  shivered  into  small  fragments. 
Mr.  Henderson,  late  a  resident  in  Iceland,  and  well  ac- 
quainted with  these  phenomena,  states  that  by  throwing 
stones  into  the  pipe  of  the  Geyser,  he  could  bring  on  an 
eruption  in  a  few  minutes,  and  that  in  such  cases  the  frag- 
ments of  stone  as  well  as  the  water  were  thrown  much 
higher  than  usual.  When  an  eruption  had  been  brought 
on  in  this  manner,  and  the  water  had  been  ejected,  the 
steam  continued  to  rush  up,  with  amazing  force,  and  at- 
tended by  a  deafening  roar,  for  nearly  an  hour,  but  the 
Geyser,  as  if  exhausted  by  this  effort,  did  not  give  symp- 
toms of  a  fresh  eruption  when  its  usual  interval  had 
elapsed. 

In  the  different  explanations  which  have  been  offered  to 
account  for  phenomena  so  singular  and  astonishing,  and 
which  have  been  no  where  else  observed,  most  writers 
agree  in  supposing  a  subterranean  cavity,  where  water 
and  steam  collect,  and  where  the  free  escape  of  the  steam 
is  interrupted  at  intervals,  or  until  it  acquires  sufficient 
force  to  overcome  the  resistance  occasioned  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  water.  This  will  be  readily  understood  by  the 
annexed  diagram,  reduced  from  Mr.  Lyell,  and  we  may 
remark  that  the  theory  is  the  same  with  that  of  intermit- 
ting spring,  only  that  the  Geyser  acts  by  steam,  while  the 
other  is  explained  on  the  principles  of  the  syphon. — See  the 
Author's  Nat.  Philosophy,  p.  107. 


In  explain- 
ing this  cut, 
suppose  wa- 
ter percolat- 
ing from  the 
surface  of  the 
earth,  or  from 
springs  be- 
low, finds  its 
way  into  the 
subterranean 
cavity  d,  by 
the  fissures/* 
f,  while  at  the 
same  time 
steam  of  an 

extremely  high  temperature,  emanates  from  volcanic  rocks 
into  the  same  cavity  through  the  fissures  c  c.  A  portion 
of  the  steam  in  the  first  place  would  be  condensed  into 
water,  but  its  temperature  continuing  to  increase  by  the 
latent  heat  of  the  steam,  the  lower  part  of  the  cavity  would 
soon  be  filled  with  the  boiling  fluid,  while  the  upper  part 
would  be  filled  by  steam  under  considerable  pressure. 
The  steam  continuing  to  form,  the  water  being  now  too 
hot  to  condense  it,  would  soon  by  its  expansive  force, 
drive  the  water  up  the  pipe  or  fissure  c,  b,  whatever 
might  be  its  height,  and  thus  the  basin  at  the  surface 
would  be  filled,  and  an  eruption  take  place.  When  the 
pressure  is  thus  diminished,  the  steam  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  cavity  a,  would  expand,  or  probably  a  portion  of  the 
boiling  water  under  diminished  pressure  would  be  instant- 
ly converted  into  steam,  and  the  passage  being  free,  would 
rush  up  the  pipe  in  the  same  manner  as  is  seen  and  heard 
on  opening  the  safety  valve  of  a  steam  boiler.  If  the 
pipe  be  choked  up  artificially  with  stones,  even  for  a  few 
minutes,  a  great  increase  of  heat  would  be  occasioned, 
since  the  steam  would  thus  be  prevented  from  escaping, 
so  that  the  water  would  be  made  to  boil  in  a  few  minutes 
and  thus  an  eruption  would  be  brought  on,  as  stated  by 
Mr.  Henderson. 

This  explanation  accounts  for  all  the  phenomena  ob- 
served in  the  Geysers,  and  although  we  cannot  be  certain 
of  its  truth,  still  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  such 


LAKE  OF  GENEVA.  57 

a  cavity  exists,  and  it  is  certain  that  steam  is  the  moving 
power. 

Mr.  Lyell  forms  a  theory  of  earthquakes  on  this  expla- 
nation.— See  Seat  aiid  Theory  of  Earthquakes. 


DELTAS  IN  LAKES. 


Considerable  changes  have  taken  place  by  causes  now 
going  on,  in  consequence  of  the  deposition  of  earthy 
matter  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  where  they  enter  lakes,  or 
seas.  We  have  already  given  an  account  of  the  accumu- 
lation of  land  along  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic  in  conse- 
quence chiefly  of  depositions  from  the  river  Po.  The 
quantity  of  matter  thus  carried  down  by  different  rivers, 
of  similar  magnitudes,  differs  exceedingly ;  this  difference 
depending  much  on  the  rapidity  of  the  stream,  and  its 
liability  to  overflow  its  banks  at  certain  seasons. 

Delta  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  The  Lake  of  Geneva  is 
thirty  seven  miles  long,  and  from  two  to  nine  miles  broad. 
The  Rhone  enters  at  one  end  of  this  lake  and  the  city  of 
Geneva  stands  at  the  other.  The  water  where  it  dis- 
charges itself  near  the  city  is  exceedingly  clear  and  trans- 
parent, but  at  the  upper  end  it  is  commonly  turbid,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  matter  brought  down  by  the  Rhone. 

Mr.  De  La  Beche,  after  numerous  soundings,  found  that 
the  depth  of  the  water  in  the  middle  of  the  lake  was  from 
one  hundred  and  twenty,  to  one  hundred  and  sixty  fa- 
thoms; but  on  approaching  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone, 
the  water  began  to  grow  shallower  at  the  distance  of  a 
mile  and  three  quarters  from  that  end  of  the  lake.  It 
may  be  stated  therefore  that  the  strata  annually  produced 
by  the  river  are  about  two  miles  in  length.  From  sound- 
ings it  has  been  ascertained  that  in  some  places  the  de- 
posites  from  the  Rhone  are  probably  from  six  to  nine 
hundred  feet  in  thickness;  and  from  the  remains  of  some 
Roman  buildings  on  the  border  of  the  lake,  Mr.  Lyell 
judges  that  this  accumulation  has  taken  place  within  the  last 
eight  hundred  years.  "  If,"  says  he  "  we  could  obtain  the 
depth  of  this  accumulation  formed  in  the  last  eight  centu- 
ries, we  should  see  a  great  series  of  strata,  probably  from 


58  LAKE  OF  GENEVA. 

six  to  nine  hundred  feet  thick,  and  nearly  two  miles  in 
length,  inclined  at  a  very  slight  angle." 

Mr.  Lyell  proposes  a  plan  for  estimating  the  time  when 
the  Lake  of  Geneva,  or  the  Leman  Lake  will  become  dry 
land  by  the  accumulations  from  the  Rhone. 

The  capacity  of  the  lake  being  obtained,  "it  would," 
says  he,  "  be  an  interesting  subject  of  inquiry,  to  deter- 
mine in  what  number  of  years  the  Leman  lake  would  be 
converted  to  dry  land.  It  would  not  be  difficult  to  obtain 
the  elements  for  such  a  calculation,  so  as  to  approximate 
at  least  to  the  quantity  of  time  required  for  the  accom- 
plishment of  this  result  The  number  of  cubic  feet  of 
water  annually  discharged  by  the  river  into  the  lake  being 
known,  experiments  might  be  made  in  winter  and  summei 
to  determine  the  proportion  of  matter  held  in  suspension, 
or  in  chemical  solution,  by  the  Rhone." 

Such  calculations,  however,  after  all  the  data  that  could 
be  obtained,  would  be  exceedingly  uncertain,  and  since 
the  elements  proposed  by  the  author  have  not  been 
obtained,  we  do  not  extract  his  speculations  on  this 
subject. 

But  were  it  ascertained  exactly  how  much  alluvial 
matter  is  carried  down  by  the  Rhone  at  the  present  day. 
still  this  would  decide  nothing  definitely  with  respect  to 
the  time  during  which  this  accumulation  has  been  forming. 
According  to  Mr.  Lyell' s  supposition  above  cited,  a  part 
of  the  delta  has  formed  at  the  rate  of  about  a  foot  in  a  year, 
namely,  from  six  to  nine  hundred  feet  in  eight  hundred 

nrs.  Now  allowing  that  the  Rhone  has,  on  an  average, 
t  osited  a  foot  of  matter  a  year  in  the  lake,  and  has  con- 
tinued to  do  so  ever  since  the  deluge,  then  the  accumula- 
tion ought  to  be  at  least  four  thousand  feet  thick,  which 
would  long  ago  have  filled  up  the  Leman  lake,  and  made 
it  solid  ground.  The  phenomena  of  this  lake,  therefore 
clearly  shows  that  either  it  has  not  received  the  Rhone 
for  so  many  years,  or  if  so,  that  its  waters  contained  less 
solid  matter  anciently  than  at  present.  In  either  case, 
it  is  quite  certain  that  no  argument  can  be  derived  from 
the  present  condition  of  this  delta,  in  favour  of  the  high 
antiquity  of  the  present  form  of  the  earth.  But  on  the  con- 
trary, if  any  conclusions  can  be  drawn  from  this  source, 
they  are  in  direct  coincidence  with  the  idea  that  the  pre- 
sent order  of  things  are  of  recent  origin,  and  therefore  iq 
confirmation  of  the  truth  of  the  sacred  history  pf  the  deluge, 


BALTIC  SEA. 


DELTAS  IN  THE  SEA. 

Accumulations  in  the  Baltic.  The  question  whether 
the  waters  of  the  Baltic  sea  have  been  sinking,  or  whether 
they  have  remained  stationary,  has  been  a  subject  of  con- 
troversy since  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  Celcius,  a 
Swedish  astronomer,  attempted  to  prove  that  the  waters 
of  this  sea  had  suffered  a  depression  at  the  rate  of  about 
forty-five  inches  in  a  century,  from  the  earliest  times.  He 
contended  that  the  proof  of  this  change  rested  not  only 
on  modern  observations,  but  also  on  the  authority  of  the 
ancient  geographers,  who  stated  that  Scandinavia,  now  a 
peninsula,  was  formerly  an  island.  But  most  of  the  argu- 
ments of  Celcius  and  his  followers  show  that  they  did  not 
sufficiently  distinguish  between  the  shallowing  of  the  water 
by  the  deposition  of  sediment,  and  the  actual  lowering  of 
the  sea.  It  appears  that  the  sinking  of  the  waters,  on  which 
estimates  were  chiefly  made,  were  at  the  mouths  of  rivers, 
and  in  bays,  where  in  the  one  case  inland  sediment  might 
be  expected,  and  in  the  other  where  loss  of  depth  might 
be  occasioned  by  the  shifting  of  sand  bars  by  the  current 
of  the  sea.  But  the  facts  stated  concerning  the  gradual 
conversion  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  into  dry  land  merit 
more  attention.  Thus  it  was  shown  that  at  Pitea,  half  a 
mile  of  land  had  been  gained  in  forty-five  years,  and  that 
at  Lulea  a  mile  of  ground  had  been  added  in  twenty-eight 
years.  Ancient  ports  on  the  same  coast  had  become  in- 
land cities.  Considerable  portions  of  the  gulf  were  also 
shown  to  have  become  three  feet  shallower  in  the  course 
of  fifty  years — many  old  fishing  grounds  had  been 
changed  into  dry  land,  and  small  islands  had  been  joined 
to  the  continent.  Besides  these  changes,  it  was  asserted 
that  along  the  coast  of  West  Prussia,  and  Pomerania, 
anchors,  and  the  hulls  of  old  ships,  had  been  discovered 
far  inland. 

But  since  it  was  possible  that  all  these  facts  might  be  ac- 
counted for  by  the  accumulation  of  land,  instead  of  the  de- 
pression of  the  waters,  Celcius  derived  a  stronger  ar- 
gument still  for  his  theory  from  the  exposure  of  certain 
insular  rocks  in  the  gulf  of  Bothnia,  which  were  once 
entirely  covered  by  water.  These  rocks,  it  was  shown, 
had  risen  in  the  course  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  years,  from 
below  the  water  to  the  height  of  eight  feet  above  its  sur- 


60  BALTIC  SEA. 

face,  and  there  they  stood,  the  most  certain  and  perma- 
nent of  all  witnesses,  that  the  sea  was  so  much  lower 
than  formerly.  To  this  it  was  opposed,  that  this  island 
consisted  of  sand  and  drift  stones,  and  that  during  great 
tempests,  not  only  more  sand,  but  additional  stones,  also, 
were  thrown  upon  it.  Besides  this,  icebergs,  heavily  laden 
with  stones  and  rocks,  sometimes  floated  in  this  sea,  when 
the  ice  was  breaking  up  in  the  spring,  and  the  fact  that 
this  low  island  had  gradually  increased  in  height,  was  readi- 
ly accounted  for  by  supposing  thatthe  stranded  ice  fields  had 
forced  these  stones  above  the  level  of  the  water,  where  ol 
course  they  would  remain  after  the  ice  was  melted  away. 

This  question,  about  which  volumes  were  written  in 
the  course  of  half  a  century,  was  finally  settled  by  a  cu- 
rious, but  conclusive  proof,  brought  forward  by  the  oppo- 
sers  of  Celcius.  On  the  Finland  side  of  the  Baltic,  there 
grew,  close  to  the  water's  edge,  some  large  pine  trees. 
Some  of  these  were  cut  down,  and  by  counting  the  con- 
centric rings  of  annual  growth,  it  was  found  that  they  had 
stood  there  four  hundred  years.  Now  according  to  Cel- 
cius, the  sea  had  sunk  fifteen  feet  during  that  period,  so 
that  were  this  the  case,  these  trees  must  have  commenced 
their  growth  in  at  least  two  fathoms  of  water,  a  thing  ab- 
solutely impossible.  It  was  also  proved  that  the  walls  of 
several  ancient  castles,  as  those  of  Sonderburg  and  Abo, 
reached  the  edge  of  the  water  at  the  present  day,  and 
therefore,  had  the  water  sunk,  these  foundations  must  have 
originally  been  laid  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  Very- 
ample  proofs  from  other  sources  have  also  been  adduced, 
that  the  level  of  the  Baltic  has  suffered  no  change  for 
eight  hundred,  or  a  thousand  years. 

But  notwithstanding  the  proofs  are  quite  positive  that 
the  hypothesis  of  Celcius  can  only  be  substantiated  by  de- 
ceptive arguments,  drawn  from  progressive  accumulations 
of  solid  matter  in  the  water ;  still  there  are  many  intelli- 
gent men  who  maintain  that  the  waters  of  the  Baltic  are 
suffering  a  constant  diminution.  So  lately  as  1821,  seve- 
ral Swedish  officers,  belonging  to  the  pilotage  department, 
declared  in  favor  of  this  opinion.  The  weight  of  evi- 
dence is,  however,  entirely  opposed  to  the  theory  of  Cel- 
cius, and  there  can  be  little  doubt  but  the  Baltic  Sea  has 
remained  at  its  present  level  from  time  immemorial. — Ly- 
elFs  Geology,  vol.  1.  p.  227. 

We  have  been  thus  particular  in  this  account,  that  the 


DELTA  OF  THE  RHONE  IN  THE  SEA.        61 

geological  student  might  observe  how  much  difficulty  some- 
times occurs  in  deciding  questions  of  this  nature,  and  con- 
sequently how  much  experience  and  judgment  ought  to 
be  exercised  before  any  positive  opinion  is  advanced  on 
some  geological  points,  in  themselves  apparently  of  the 
most  simple  kind.  The  great  question,  also,  whether  the 
waters  of  the  ocean  are  diminishing,  as  has  been  maintain- 
ed by  several  writers,  is  involved  in  the  question  of  the 
Baltic;  for  since  this  sea  communicates  with  all  other  seas, 
and  oceans,  its  gradual  depression  would  prove  a  corres- 
ponding diminution  of  the  sea  all  over  the  earth.  But  from 
the  above  account  there  is  no  doubt,  that  the  supposed 
sinking  of  the  Baltic  is  entirely  a  deception,  arising  from 
alluvial  accumulations  brought  down  by  rivers,  and  the  oc- 
casional shifting  of  sand  banks  by  the  currents  of  that  sea. 

Delta  of  the  Rhone  in  the  Sea.  We  have  seen  that 
the  Rhone  deposits  large  quantities  of  sediment  in  the 
lake  of  Geneva,  and  have  noticed  with  what  crystalline 
transparency  the  waters  of  that  lake  are  discharged  to  con- 
tinue the  same  river  towards  the  sea.  But,  says  Mr.  Ly- 
ell,  "scarcely  has  the  river  passed  out  of  the  Leman  Lake, 
before  its  pure  waters  are  again  filled  with  sand  and  sedi- 
ment by  the  impetuous  Arve,  descending  from  the  highest 
Alps,  and  bearing  along  in  its  current  the  granitic  detri- 
tus [broken  rocks]  annually  carried  down  by  the  glaciers 
of  Mount  Blanc."  The  Rhone,  also,  afterwards  receives 
vast  contributions  of  transported  matter  from  the  Alps  of 
Dauphiny,  and  the  primary  and  volcanic  mountains  of 
central  France,  so  that  when  it  reaches  the  Mediterrane- 
an, it  discolors  the  waters  of  the  sea  to  the  distance  of  ma- 
ny leagues. 

The  advance  of  the  delta  of  the  Rhone  into  the  Sea,  is 
proved  by  many  circumstances,  and  particularly  by  the 
facts  that  an  island  described  by  Pomponius  Mela,  an  an- 
cient Latin  geographer,  is  now  far  inland,  and  that  a  loca- 
tion which  was  a  harbor  in  898,  is  now  three  miles  from 
the  shore.  It  is  also  known  that  Psamodi,  which  was  an 
island  in  815,  is  at  the  present  time  six  miles  from  the  sea 
-v  As  the  Rhone  enters  the  sea  by  several  mouths,  at  con- 
siderable distances  from  each  other,  a  large  tract  of  country- 
is  brought  within  its  influence,  and  thus  besides  extending 
the  land  along  the  shore,  marshes  of  great  extent  have, 
6 


62        DELTA  OF  THE  RHONE  IN  THE  SEA. 

during  the  lapse  of  ages,  been  filled  up  by  its  annual  de- 
posites. 

In  the  course  of  this  river  it  receives  the  waters  of  a 
vast  number  of  springs  containing  carbonate  of  lime  in  so- 
lution, and  which  mixing  with  the  waters  of  the  Rhone, 
is  not  deposited  until  it  reaches  the  sea.  Hence  the  Delta 
of  this  river,  instead  of  consisting  of  loose  incoherent  sedi- 
ment, like  the  deposites  from  most  other  rivers,  consists 
chiefly  of  solid  rock ;  the  carbonate  of  lime  acting  as  a  ce- 
ment to  the  sediment,  when  this  exists,  or  in  its  absence, 
forming  limestone  nearly  pure.  This  is  a  well  ascertain- 
ed fact,  for  large  masses  of  this  rock  are  quarried  for  va- 
rious purposes,  and  are  found  to  consist  of  sand  consolida- 
ted by  a  calcareous  cement,  and  mixed  with  broken  shells. 
After  the  sand  has  been  deposited,  the  waters  still  hold  a 
portion  of  the  carbonate  in  solution,  which  is  thrown  down 
in  a  purer  state,  and  even  sometimes  in  the  form  of  crys- 
talline masses.  As  an  example,  there  exists  a  cannon  in 
the  museum  of  Montpelier,  taken  up  from  near  the  mouth 
of  this  river  imbedded  in  crystalline  limestone. 

Thus  we  see  that  solid  limestone  is  now  constantly 
forming,  in  which  are  imbedded  shells  as  in  the  ancient 
marbles,  which  some  geologists  have  contended  were 
thousands  of  years  older  than  the  creation  according  to 
Moses.  This  circumstance  is  important,  and  will  be  ad- 
verted to  in  another  place. 

In  a  late  survey  of  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  the 
employed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone  were  obliged 
to  quit  their  moorings  when  the  wind  blew  strongly  from 
the  south-west.  Captain  Smith,  one  of  the  officers  on 
this  service,  states,  that  when  the  ships  returned  after 
such  a  wind,  the  new  sand  banks  in  the  Delta  were  found 
covered  with  a  great  abundance  of  marine  shells,  which 
were  swept  there  by  the  current  caused  by  the  wind. 
This  circumstance  appears  to  explain  phenomena  of  some 
importance  in  geology.  In  some  ancient  strata  it  has 
been  claimed  that  marine  and  fresh  water  shells  alternate 
with  each  other,  and  hence  it  has  been  supposed  that  at 
least  in  such  places,  the  sea  had  retired  for  a  time,  while 
fresh  water  occupied  its  place;  after  which  the  sea  again 
resumed  its  former  bed ;  and  so  alternately  as  often  as  the 
different  kinds  of  shells  were  repeated.  But  it  appears 
from  the  above  statement,  that  the  explanation  of  such 
appearances  is  very  simple,  and  that  it  is  unnecessary  to 


DELTA  OF  THE  GANGES  63 

believe  that  the  ordinary  course  of  nature  was  changed 
in  order  to  produce  such  effects :  for,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Rhone,  a  strong  south-west  wind  only  is  required,  to  occa- 
sionally mix  the  shells  of  the  sea  with  those  which  are 
brought  down  by  the  fresh  water,  or  which  live  in  its  cur- 


Delta  of  the  Po  in  the  Adriatic.  We  have  already 
described  the  effects  which  the  Po  has  produced  and  is 
now  producing  in  some  parts  of  the  country  through 
which  it  passes.  But  we  must  notice  more  particularly 
the  changes  which  this  mighty  torrent,  assisted  by  the 
Adige,  has  produced  at  its  delta  in  the  Adriatic. 

These  two  rivers,  with  numerous  smaller  streams,  drain 
some  of  the  loftiest  ridges  of  the  Apennines,  together 
with  one  side  of  the  great  Crescent  of  the  Alps.  The 
combined  influence  of  these  rivers  have  produced  an  en- 
ormous increase  of  alluvial  matter  along  the  coast  of  that 
sea.  From  the  northernmost  point  of  the  gxilf  of  Trieste, 
where  the  river  Isonzo  enters,  down  to  the  south  of  Ra- 
venna, there  is  an  uninterrupted  series  of  recent  alluvial 
deposites,  forming  dry  land,  more  than  one  hundred  miles 
in  length,  and  from  two  to  twenty  miles  in  breadth. 
There  is  evidence  that  this  great  alluvion  has  been  formed 
within  the  last  two  thousand  years.  Adria,  a  city  which 
gave  name  to  the  Adriatic,  was  originally  a  sea-port ;  it 
is  now  twenty  miles  from  the  sea.  Ravenna  and  Spina 
were  also  built  on  the  sea,  but,  at  the  present  time,  the 
first  is  four,  and  the  last  ten  or  twelve  miles  from  the 
water. 

Delta  of  the  Ganges.  The  Ganges  and  the  Burram- 
pooter  descend  from  Himmala  mountains,  the  most  lofty 
on  the  globe.  The  latter  river  may  be  considered  as  a 
branch  of  the  former,  and  falls  into  it  long  before  their 
united  waters  reach  the  sea.  The  Ganges  is  discharged 
into  the  bay  of  Bengal,  which  forms  a  vast  indenture  into 
the  continent  of  more  than  two  hundred  miles  in  length. 
The  Delta  of  the  Ganges  commences  more  than  200 
miles  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  in  a  direct  line,  and  300,  if 
the  distance  be  estimated  along  the  windings  of  the  river. 
That  part  of  the  Delta  which  borders  on  the  sea,  is  divi- 
ded by  a  vast  number  of  rivers,  or  creeks,  all  of  which 
are  salt  except  those  which  communicate  with  the  prin- 


64  DELTA  OF  THE  GAXGKS. 

cipal  arms  of  the  Ganges.  This  tract  is  famous  under  the 
name  of  Sunder  bunds,  being  the  common  haunt  of  tigers 
and  alligators.  Its  extent,  according  to  the  account  of 
Major  Rennell,  is  equal  to  the  whole  principality  of  Wales. 
Its  base,  bordering  on  the  sea,  is  about  two  hundred  miles 
in  length,  and,  on  each  side,  it  is  enclosed  by  an  arm  of 
the  Ganges.  Besides  these,  through  which  the  water  of 
this  immense  river  is  now  discharged,  there  are  six  other 
great  openings  through  the  Delta  into  the  sea,  each  of 
which  has  evidently  at  some  ancient  period,  been  the 
principal  bed  of  the  river.  During  the  period  of  over- 
flow the  greater  part  of  this  vast  Delta  is  covered  with 
the  water  of  the  river,  so  that  the  Ganges  appears  to  be 
flowing  into  a  vast  lake,  instead  of  itself  inundating,  and 
sweeping  a  whole  territory  of  India.  So  great  is  the 
quantity  of  mud  and  sand  carried  down  by  this  immense 
current,  at  such  seasons,  and  so  vast  the  quantity  of  water 
it  discharges,  that  the  ocean  is  discoloured  by  it  to  the 
distance  of  sixty  miles  from  its  mouth. 

In  various  parts  of  this  delta  great  accumulations,  or 
islands,  are  formed  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  and  per- 
haps as  soon  swept  away,  and  similar  ones  formed  in 
other  places.  Some  of  these,  which  are  islands  during 
freshets,  Major  Rennell  states,  are  equal  in  extent  to  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  and  thickly  inhabited.  The  people  are, 
however,  always  in  danger  of  being  swept  away  by  floods 
of  uncommon  height.  In  1763  such  an  inundation  hap- 
pened, the  water  rising  six  feet  above  ordinary  floods ;  and 
consequently  the  inhabitants  of  one  of  these  districts  of 
considerable  extent,  were,  with  their  horses  and  cattle,  to- 
tally engulfed,  and  perished  in  the  water. 

These  examples  of  the  effects  of  running  water  in 
changing  the  surface  of  the  Globe  are  sufficient  for  the 
purposes  intended.  In  all  parts  of  the  world,  such  effects 
are  constantly  taking  place,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 

The  aggregate  accumulation  of  solid  ground  by  the  for- 
mation and  extension  of  deltas  on  the  surface  of  the  whole 
earth,  must  be  very  considerable  during  every  year ;  and 
yet  these  effects  are  hardly  appreciable  in  relation  to  the 
changes  they  produce  on  the  entire  surface  of  the  globe. 
It  is  true,  that  the  course  of  navigation  is  in  a  few  instan- 
ces obstructed,  or  changed,  by  these  accumulations,  but  in 
general  the  same  sea  ports  of  which  the  earliest  records 
of  history  give  any  account,  are  still  accessible. 


SEDIMENT  IN  RIVER  WATER.  65 

Had  these  accumulations  commenced  at  very  remote 
periods  as  some  have  contended,  and  continued  to  the 
present  time,  it  is  quite  certain  that  many  lakes  now  exist- 
ing1 would  have  become  dry  land,  and  that  the  deltas  of 
rivers  falling  into  the  sea,  would  have  been  far  more  ex- 
tensive than  we  find  they  are.  All  the  facts,  therefore, 
which  are  connected  with  the  effects  of  rivers  in  the 
formation  of  dry  land,  tend  to  show  that  the  present 
form  of  the  earth  has  not  existed  more  than  a  few  thou- 
sand years,  and  that  it  has  suffered  no  considerable  chan- 
ges from  running  streams,  as  one  of  the  causes  now  in 
operation. 


QUANTITY  OF  SEDIMENT  IN  RIVER  WATER. 

Having  in  the  preceding  pages  given  such  an  account 
of  the  effects  of  rivers  in  forming  solid  depositions,  as  our 
limits  will  allow,  it  is  proper  here  to  present  the  geologi- 
cal student  with  an  account  of  the  estimates  and  experi- 
ments, which  have  been  made,  to  ascertain  the  quantity  of 
solid  matter  water  is  capable  of  holding  in  suspension. 

It  is  proper,  however,  that  we  should  also  state,  that 
few,  if  any  of  these  estimates,  can  be  considered  as  more 
than  approximations  to  the  truth  ;  still  they  are  such  as  are 
quoted  by  the  best  writers,  and  are  probably  as  accurate 
as  any  in  existence  at  the  present  day.  Major  Rennell 
states  that  a  glass  of  water  taken  out  of  the  Ganges  during 
the  height  of  its  annual  flood,  yields  about  one  part  in 
four  of  mud.  "  No  wonder,  then,"  says  he,  "  that  the  sub- 
siding waters  should  quickly  form  a  stratum  of  earth,  or 
that  its  delta  should  encroach  upon  the  sea."  The  same 
writer  who  resided  many  years  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Gan- 
ges, computed  with  great  care  the  quantity  of  water 
which  that  river  discharges  into  the  sea,  and  which  by  his 
estimate  amounted,  during  a  year,  on  an  average,  to  eighty 
thousand  cubic  feet,  for  every  second  of  time.  When  the 
river  is  at  its  greatest  height  during  its  annual  inundation, 
and  consequently  its  motion  much  accelerated,  the  quan- 
tity discharged  per  second,  by  the  same  estimate,  was  four 
hundred  and  five  thousand  cubic  feet. 

Mr.  Lyell  has  made  a  computation  of  the  quantity  of 
solid  matter  carried  down  by  the  Ganges,  taking  as  his 


66  SEDIMENT  IN  RIVER  WATER. 

data,  the  experiment  of  Major  Rennell,  and  his  estimate  of 
the  quantity  of  water  it  discharges.  "  If  it  were  true," 
says  he,  "  that  the  Ganges  in  the  flood  season  contained 
one  part  in  four  of  mud,  we  should  then  be  obliged  to  sup- 
pose that  there  passes  down  every  four  days  a  quantity  of 
mud  equal  in  volume  to  the  water  which  is  discharged  in 
the  course  of  a  day,  or  twenty-four  hours.  If  the  mud  be 
assumed  to  be  equal  to  one  half  the  specific  gravity  of 
granite,  (it  however  is  more,)  the  weight  of  matter  daily 
carried  down  in  the  flood  season  would  be  about  sixty 
times  the  weight  of  the  great  pyramid  of  Egypt.  If  the 
Ganges  discharges  405,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second, 
which  was  the  estimate  of  Major  Rennell,  then,  in  round 
numbers  the  quantity  of  mud  discharged  per  second, 
would  be  100,000  cubic  feet,  which  being  multiplied  by 
86,400,  the  number  of  seconds  in  24  hours,  would  give 
8,640,000,000  cubic  feet  of  mud  going  down  the  Ganges 
per  day.  The  weight  of  this  (allowing  as  above)  would 
be  equal  to  that  of  4,320,000,000  cubic  feet  of  granite. 
Now  about  twelve  and  a  half  cubic  feet  of  granite  weigh 
a  ton,  but  throwing  out  the  half,  the  matter  discharged  by 
the  Ganges  every  day  is  360,000,000  of  tons.  This  is 
sixty  times  the  weight  of  the  great  pyramid  of  Egypt,  which 
if  solid  is  computed  to  weigh  6,000,000  of  tons." 

But  although  the  Ganges  maybe  supposed  to  transport 
a  much  greater  quantity  of  mud,  even  according  to  its 
size,  than  any  other  river,  still  there  can  be  little  doubt 
but  Major  Rennell  very  far  over-rated  the  quantity  of 
solid  matter  its  waters  contained.  The  Rhine,  when 
most  flooded,  has  been  computed  to  contain  one  part  of 
mud  in  a  hundred  of  water,  and  Sir  George  Staunton  by 
several  observations,  calculated  that  the  water  of  Yellow 
River,  in  China,  contained  earthy  matter  in  the  proportion 
of  one  part  to  two  hundred.  In  this  proportion  he  esti- 
mated that  the  waters  of  that  river  brought  down  48,000,000 
of  cubic  feet  of  solid  matter  daily. 

According  to  the  calculations  of  Manfredi,  the  celebra- 
ted Italian  hydrographer,  the  average  amount  of  sediment 
in  all  the  running  streams  on  the  globe,  is  one  part  in  1 75. 
From  such  data,  he  estimates  that  it  would  take  a  thou- 
sand years  to  raise  the  general  bed  of  the  sea  a  single  foot, 
provided  none  of  this  sediment  was  thrown  back  again 
upon  the  shores. 

From  what  has  been  stated,  the  reader  will  observe  that 


DESTRUCTION  OF  ROCKS.  67 

althoug  h  a  considerable  number  of  experiments  have  been 
made  on  this  difficult  subject,  there  remains  much  more  to 
be  done  before  satisfactory  results  can  be  offered.  It  is 
however,  certain,  that  great  quantities  of  solid  matter  are 
transported  by  running  streams  ;  and  with  respect  to  lakes 
and  ponds  there  can  be  no  doubt,  but  they  are  gradually 
filling-  up,  and  that  if  the  same  causes  continue  which  we 
have  described,  all  these  bodies  of  water  will  finally  be 
replaced  by  dry  land. 

But  there  can  be  no  possible  estimate  made  of  the  time 
required  for  such  an  event,  since  the  quantity  of  solid 
matter  which  streams  transport,  must  be  constantly  de- 
creasing in  proportion,  as  lakes  and  ponds  approach  the 
level  of  the  country  in  which  they  are.  In  a  flat  country 
therefore,  a  lake  may  remain  for  centuries  without  any 
appreciable  elevation  of  its  bottom. 

The  great  depth  of  some  lakes  at  the  present  day,  when 
these  circumstances  are  considered,  is  a  good  proof  of  the 
newness  of  the  present  order  of  things  on  the  earth,  and 
consequently,  of  the  truth  of  the  Mosaic  history  of  its  crea- 
tion. 

With  respect  to  the  level  of  the  sea,  it  has  been  shown 
that  no  change  has  taken  place  in  the  Baltic,  and  we  may 
also  state  at  this  place,  that  it  Avill  be  seen  hereafter,  that 
the  remains  of  Roman  buildings  show  that  the  Mediterra- 
nean sea  has  not  changed  its  level  for  the  last  2000  years. 
We  may  therefore  conclude,  that  either  the  quantity  of 
matter  carried  into  the  sea  has  made  no  appreciable  differ- 
ence with  its  general  level,  or  that  as  much  solid  matter  is 
thrown  on  the  land  at  one  place  as  is  carried  into  it  in  an- 
other 


DESTRUCTION    OF    ROCKS. 

The  causes  now  described  which  have  produced  changes 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  are  chiefly  such  as  transport 
loose  materials  from  one  place  to  another.  But  there  is 
another  cause  of  change,  which  although  noticed  in  the 
first  part  of  this  article,  must  be  more  particularly  describ- 
ed. This  is  the  destruction  of  rocks. 

"  If  in  contemplating,"  savs  Dr.  Macculloch,  "  the  tow- 
ering peaks,  and  the  solid  precipices  of  an  alpine  region, 
braving  the  fury  of  the  elements,  and  the  floods  of  winter, 


68 


FALL    OF    MOUNT    ORENIER. 


the  spectator  is  at  first  impressed  with  the  character  of 
strength  and  solidity,  which  nature  here  seems  to  have 
conferred  on  her  works,  it  requires  but  a  moment's  reflec- 
tion, to  show  that  every  thing  around  him  bears  the  marks 
of  ruin  and  decay.  Here  he  learns  to  withhold  his  regret 
at  the  perishable  nature  of  all  human  labors, — at  the  fall 
of  the  strong  tower,  and  the  solid  pyramid,  when  he  sees 
that  the  most  massive  rocks,  those  mountains  which  seem 
calculated  for  eternal  duration,  bear  alike  the  marks  of 
vicissitude  and  the  traces  of  ruin." 

"  In  these  great  revolutions,  however,  other  agents 
must  co-operate ;  and  the  first  here  to  be  considered  is  the 
power  of  frost.  Expanding  as  it  freezes,  the  water  which 
has  entered  the  fissures  acts  with  irresistible  force,  and 
detaches  those  enormous  masses,  which  in  the  seasons  of 
winter  and  spring,  daily  fall  from  the  mountains.  In 
Greenland,  it  is  said  that  these  effects  often  take  place 
with  a  noise  emulating  thunder ;  but  if  less  conspicuous, 
they  are  sufficiently  common  in  all  alpine  regions  that  are 
subject  to  the  extreme  vicissitudes  of  heat  and  cold." — 
Geology,  Vol.  \.  p.  248. 

To  this  cause,  in  a  great  measure,  is  to  be  attributed  the 
ruin  of  sea  cliffs,  which  on  some  coasts  present  such  stri- 
king and  singular  appearances.  The  constant  action  of 
the  ocean  lashing  the  inferior  parts  of  these  cliffs,  also 
produces  its  effects,  and  is  often  the  cause  of  large  masses 
being  precipitated  into  the  water.  The  perpetual  rubbing 
of  the  smaller  stones  against  the  larger,  on  the  borders  of 
the  sea,  is  another  cause  which  in  the  course  of  time  pro- 
duces considerable  effects  ;  and  hence  all  such  stones  have 
lost  their  angles,  and  become  completely  smooth  and 
rounded. 

Fall  of  Mount  Grenier.  The  fall  of  a  part  of  Mount 
Grenier,  one  of  the  calcareous  mountains  of  Savoy,  illus- 
trates the  effects  of  frost,  and  the  gradual  undermining  of 
rocks  by  torrents.  Mount  Grenier  is  upwards  of  4000 
feet  high,  and  rises  abruptly  above  the  plain  on  which  it 
stands.  The  top,  or  cap,  is  an  immense  mass  of  lime- 
stone, 600  feet  thick,  below  which  are  strata  of  a  softer 
kind,  and  it  is  to  the  decay  of  the  latter  that  the  fall  is  at 
tributed,  the  cap  being  undermined  by  the  gradual  erosion 
and  removal  of  the  under  strata.  The  fall  took  place  in 
the  year  1248.  The  larger  masses,  says  Mr.  Bakewell, 


DESTROYING    EFFECTS    OF    THE    SEA.  69 

evidently  came  from  the  upper,  or  highest  part  of  the 
mountain,  and  the  velocity  they  acquired  by  the  fall  must 
have  been  at  least  300  feet  per  second,  before  they  reach- 
ed the  ground.  As  these  immense  masses  struck  oblique- 
ly against  the  base  of  the  mountain,  they  thus  acquired  a 
projectile  force  which  spread  them  far  into  the  plain. 
These  masses  were  in  such  quantity,  and  were  projected 
to  such  distances,  as  to  cover  nine  square  miles  of  surface, 
and  to  entirdy  bury  five  parishes,  together  with  the  town 
and  church  of  St.  Andre.  In  the  course  of  years  the 
rains,  or  currents  of  water  from  dissolving  snow,  have  fur- 
rowed channels  between  the  larger  masses  of  stone,  and 
washing  away  part  of  the  loose  earth,  have  left  an  im- 
mense number  of  conical  hills  still  remaining.  So  deep 
and  vast  was  the  mass  of  ruins  which  covered  the  town  of 
St.  Andre,  and  the  other  parishes,  that  except  a  small 
bronze  statue,  no  individual  article  belonging  to  any  of 
them  has  been  found  to  this  day. — BakeweWs  Geology. 

Fall  of  Rocks,  from  the  Alps.  A  part  of  a  mountain  near 
Servos,  belonging  to  the  Alpine  range,  and  on  the  road  to 
Chamouny,  fell  down  in  the  year  1751.  This  continued 
several  days,  mass  after  mass  being  precipitated,  while  an 
immense  volume  of  dust,  the  consequence  of  friction,  by 
the  sliding  of  the  rocks  on  each  other,  rose  so  high,  and 
was  so  dense  as  to  have  been  seen  at  the  distance  of  twen- 
ty-five miles.  A  succession  of  reports,  like  the  firing  of 
heavy  cannon,  announced  the  fall  of  these  masses  day  and 
night.  The  aggregate  amount  thus  precipitated  was 
estimated  by  Donati  at  3,000,000  of  cubic  fathoms,  or 
fifteen  millions  of  cubic  feet,  a  quantity  sufficient  to  form 
a  large  hill. 


DESTROYING    EFFECTS    OF    THE    SEA. 

Mr.  Lyell  has  adduced  many  instances  of  the  power  of 
sea  waves  to  move  large  masses  of  solid  rock.  In  the 
Shetland  Isles  this  effect  has  been  quite  surprising.  In 
1818,  during  a  storm,  a  mass  of  granite,  nine  feet  by  six, 
was  thrown  by  the  waves  up  a  declivity  to  the  distance 
of  150  feet;  and,  in  the  winter  of  1802,  a  mass  of  rock 


70  INROADS    OF    THE    SEA. 

eight  feet  by  seven,  and  five  feet  thick,  was  moved  to  the 
distance  of  ninety  feet,  by  the  same  force. 

The  reader,  who  remembers  the  immense  power  which 
velocity  gives  a  sea  wave,  as  above  illustrated,  will  be  at 
no  loss  to  comprehend  why  the  strongest  ships  are  some- 
times reduced  to  fragments  in  a  few  minutes ;  nor  will  he 
wonder  at  the  destroying  effects  which  a  wide  ocean  must 
produce  on  a  coast,  which  is  not  guarded  by  a  strong  bar- 
rier of  solid  rocks.  . 

Destruction  of  the  Village  of  Mathers.  The  village  of 
Mathers,  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland,  was  destroyed  by 
an  inroad  of  the  sea,  in  1795.  This  town  was  guarded  by 
a  barrier  of  limestone  rock  next  the  shore,  but  during  a 
storm  the  waves  of  the  ocean  broke  through  this  barrier, 
and  in  one  night  destroyed  and  swept  away  the  whole 
village.  The  sea  penetrated  150  yards  inland,  where  it 
has  maintained  its  ground  ever  since. 

Eastern  Coasts  of  England.  The  eastern  coasts  of 
England  are  constantly  suffering  from  the  inroads  of  the 
sea.  On  the  old  maps  of  Yorkshire,  many  spots  are 
marked  as  the  sites  of  towns  which  are  now  sand  banks  in 
the  ocean.  A  greater  or  less  portion  of  the  coasts  of  Nor- 
folk and  Suffolk,  are  every  year  swallowed  up  by  the  sea 
The  town  of  Sherringham,  on  this  coast,  exhibits  a  melan 
choly  proof  of  this  fact.  With  respect  to  this  town,  Mr. 
Lyell  states,  that  at  one  point  there  is  now  a  depth  of 
water  of  25  feet,  (sufficient  to  float  a  frigate,)  where  only 
48  years  ago,  there  stood  a  cliff  fifty  feet  high,  with  houses 
upon  it.  Further  to  the  south  are  cliffs  more  than  200 
feet  high,  more  or  less  of  which  are  every  year  precipita- 
ted into  the  ocean,  in  consequence  of  being  undermined 
by  the  waves.  The  whole  site  of  the  ancient  town  of 
Cromer  now  forms  a  part  of  the  bed  of  the  German  ocean, 
the  inhabitants  having  gradually  pulled  down  their  houses 
and  removed  inland  as  the  sea  encroached  upon  them ; 
and,  from  their  present  situation,  they  are  in  danger  of 
being  dislodged  by  the  same  cause.  From  this  neighbor- 
hood, in  the  year  1822,  a  mass  of  earth  and  rocks  was 
precipitated  into  the  sea,  to  the  extent  of  twelve  acres, 
the  cliffs  being  250  feet  high;  and  on  the  same  coast,  three 
ancient  villages,  several  manors,  and  large  portions  of  a 


INROADS    OF    THE    SEA.  71 

number  of  parishes  have,  from  the  same  cause,  gradually 
disappeared,  and  been  replaced  by  the  ocean. 

Since  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  as  appears  by 
the  records,  the  sea-coast  town  of  Dunwich  has  lost  in 
succession,  a  monastery  at  one  time  ]  at  another,  several 
churches;  at  another,  400  houses;  and,  subsequently, 
another  church ;  the  town  hall  and  jail,  together  with 
many  other  buildings,  all  precipitated  into  the  sea. 

These  are  given  as  specimens  of  the  devastating  effects 
of  the  sea  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  and,  by  which, 
it  appears  that  if  on  the  one  hand,  large  tracts  of  coast  are 
forming,  and  encroaching  upon  the  ocean  in  one  part  of 
the  world,  as  in  the  Baltic,  and  on  the  coasts  of  Italy,  so 
on  the  other  hand,  the  sea  is  encroaching  on  the  land  in 
other  parts,  probably  to  an  equal  extent. 

In  many  instances,  inundations  from  the  sea  have  been 
the  means  of  effecting,  not  only  great  changes  in  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  in  a  short  period  of  time,  but  also  of  de- 
stroying vast  numbers  of  human  beings.  On  the  coast  of 
Holland  these  disasters  have  been  peculiarly  destructive, 
as  well  as  on  the  coast  opposite. 

A  considerable  peninsula  which  lay  between  Groningen 
and  East  Friesland,  and  was  thickly  inhabited,  was  partly 
overwhelmed  in  1277,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
land  carried  away,  with  many  houses  and  inhabitants. 
During  the  fifteenth  century,  other  portions  were  destroy- 
ed by  the  same  cause,  and  a  part  of  the  town  of  Forum,  a 
place  of  considerable  size,  was  swept  away.  In  1507,  not 
only  the  remainder  of  Forum  was  ingulfed,  in  spite  of 
the  erection  of  dams,  but  also  several  market  towns,  villa- 
ges and  monasteries,  were  entirely  destroyed,  together 
with  their  inhabitants. 

Further  to  the  north,  anciently  lay  the  district  of  North 
Friesland.  This  was  a  peninsula ;  but  in  1240,  the  sea 
destroyed  the  land  next  the  coast,  and  thus  formed  an 
island  called  Northstrand.  This  island  was  originally  of 
considerable  extent,  but  the  sea,  from  time  to  time,  swept 
away  small  portions  of  it,  until  the  inhabitants  became  so 
concentrated,  that  when  the  island  was  only  four  geogra- 
phical miles  in  circumference,  their  number  was  still  nine 
thousand.  At  last,  on  the  night  of  the  llth  of  October, 
1634,  a  flood  from  the  sea  swept  over  the  whole  island, 
and  destroyed  at  once  a  great  proportion  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, all  the  houses,  churches  and  cattle,  carrying  away 


72  DOWNS. 

even  the  land  that  had  sustained  them.  By  this  dreadful 
calamity,  there  was  swept  away  1300  houses,  with  all  the 
churches,  50,000  head  of  cattle,  and  more  than  6000 
people. 

We  might  continue  these  accounts  with  regard  to  the 
changes  which  have  taken  place  on  the  same  coasts  to 
great  length ;  but  our  design  being  chiefly  to  give  exam- 
ples, rather  than  general  details,  we  will  here  conclude 
this  part  of  our  subject. 


DOWNS,    OR    SAND    HILLS. 

In  some  sections  of  country,  the  fine  sand  that  is  thrown 
up  by  the  sea,  is  carried  by  the  wind  to  considerable  dis- 
tances, and  in  such  quantities  as  to  cover  the  land  entirely, 
and  to  fill  up  lakes  and  estuaries.  Occasionally,  also, 
there  are  sand  plains  at  a  distance  from  the  sea,  where  ve- 
getation seems  never  to  have  taken  root,  and  where,  con- 
sequently, there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  sand  from  spread- 
ing in  all  directions  by  the  force  of  the  winds. 

On  the  coasts  of  France  and  Holland,  long  chains  of 
sand  hills  have  been  formed  from  the  sea,  which  have  ef- 
fected important  geological  changes,  by  barring  up  the 
mouths  of  rivers  and  bays,  and  thus  preventing  the  ingress 
of  tides,  and  changing  the  course  of  currents. 

On  the  north  coast  of  Cornwall,  in  England,  a  conside- 
rable extent  of  country  has  been  inundated  by  drifting 
sand  and  pulverized  shells  from  the  sea  shore.  Some  of 
the  hills  thus  formed  are  several  hundred  feet  high.  By 
the  shifting  of  these  sands,  the  ruins  of  several  ancient 
buildings  have  been  discovered,  showing  that  these  chan- 
ges have  been  in  progress  for  many  centuries.  In  some 
places  this  sand  has  become  so  compact  as  to  be  employ- 
ed for  architectural  purposes,  the  cementing  agent  being 
oxide  of  iron,  which  the  water  carries,  in  solution,  from 
the  upper  to  the  lower  strata. 

But  it  is  in  the  East,  and  especially  on  the  borders  of 
Egypt,  that  the  devastating  effects  of  sand  has  produced 
the  most  calamitous  consequences.  In  Egypt,  these  are 
called  sand  floods,  and  of  their  effects  De  Luc  has  given 
the  following  statement : — 

"  The  sands  of  the  Lybian,"  he  says,  "  driven  by  the 


DOWNS.  71 

west  winds  have  left  no  lands  capable  of  tillage  on  any 
parts  of  the  western  banks  of  the  Nile,  not  sheltered  by 
mountains.  The  encroachment  of  these  sands  on  districts 
which  were  formerly  inhabited  and  cultivated,  is  evidently 
seen  M.  Dcnon  informs  us,  in  his  Travels  in  Lower  and 
Upper  Egypt,  that  summits  of  the  ruins  of  ancient  cities, 
buried  under  these  sands,  still  appear  externally ;  and  that 
but  for  a  ridge  of  mountains,  called  the  Lybian  chain, 
which  borders  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  and  forms,  in  the 
parts  where  it  rises,  a  barrier  against  the  invasion  of  these 
sands,  the  shores  of  the  river,  on  that  side,  would  long 
since  have  ceased  to  be  habitable.  "  Nothing  can  be  more 
melancholy,"  says  Denon,  "than  to  walk  over  villages, 
swallowed  up  by  the  sand  of  the  desert,  to  trample  under 
foot  their  roofs,  to  strike  against  the  summits  of  their 
minarets,  to  reflect  that  yonder  were  cultivated  fields,  that 
there  grew  trees,  that  here  were  even  the  dwellings  of 
men,  and  that  all  have  vanished." 

Da  Luc  draws  an  argument  from  these  sand  floods  in 
favor  of  the  newness  of  the  earth,  and  of  the  truth  of  the 
Mosaic  history  of  the  creation. 

"  If  then,"  he  continues,  "  our  continents  were  as  an- 
cient as  has  been  pretended,  no  traces  of  the  habitation  of 
men  would  appear  on  any  part  of  the  western  bank  of  the 
Nile,  which  is  exposed  to  this  scourge  of  the  sands  of  the 
desert.  The  existence,  therefore,  of  such  monuments,  at- 
tests the  successive  progress  of  the  encroachment  of  the 
sand,  and  these  parts  of  the  bank,  formerly  inhabited,  will 
forever  remain  arid  and  waste." 

"  It  is,  therefore,  not  solely  to  her  revolutions  and 
changes  of  sovereigns,  that  Egypt  owes  the  loss  of  her 
ancient  splendor ;  it  is  also  to  her  having  been  thus  irre- 
coverably deprived  of  a  tract  of  land,  by  which,  before  the 
sands  of  the  desert  had  covered  it,  and  caused  it  to  disap- 
pear, her  wants  had  been  abundantly  supplied.  Now,  if 
we  fix  our  attention  on  this  fact,  and  reflect  on  the  conse- 
quences which  would  have  attended  it,  if  thousands,  or 
only  some  hundreds  of  centuries  had  elapsed  since  our 
continents  first  existed  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  does  it 
not  evidently  appear,  that  all  the  country  on  the  west  of 
the  Nile  would  have  been  buried  under  this  sand  before 
the  erection  of  the  cities  of  ancient  Egypt,  how  remote 
soever  that  period  may  be  supposed,  and  that  in  a  coun- 
try so  long  afflicted  with  sterility,  no  idea  would  even 


74  CORAL  ISLANDS. 

hare  been  formed  of  constructing  such  vast  and  numerous 
edifices?  When  these  cities,  indeed,  \vere  built,  another 
cause  concurred  in  favoring  their  prosperity.  The  navi- 
gation of  the  Red  Sea  was  not  then  attended  with  any 
danger  on  the  coasts ;  all  its  ports,  now  nearly  blocked  up 
with  reefs  of  coral,  had  a  safe  and  easy  access  ;  the  vessels 
laden  with  merchandise  and  provisions  could  enter  them 
and  depart  without  risk  of  being  wrecked  on  these  shoals, 
which  have  risen  since  that  time,  and  are  still  increasing 
in  extent."  "  Thus  the  reefs  of  coral  which  have  been 
raised  in  the  Red  Sea,  on  the  east  of  Egypt,  and  the  sands 
of  the  desert  which  invade  it  on  the  west,  concur  in  attest- 
ing this  truth, — That  our  continents  are  not  of  a  more  re- 
mote antiquity  than  has  been  assigned  to  them  by  the  sa- 
cred historian  in  the  Book  of  Genesis,  from  the  great  era 
of  the  Deluge." 


FORMATION    OF    CORAL    ISLANDS. 

It  is  but  recently  that  any  observations  tending  to  in- 
lerest  or  inform  the  naturalist,  have  been  made  on  the 
production  of  Coral  Islands.  But  the  great  extent  to 
which  these  islands  have  been  formed,  together  with  the 
rapidity  with  which  it  has  been  said  they  are  increasing, 
give  this  subject  a  considerable  degree  of  interest,  not 
only  in  respect  to  geology,  but  also  as  it  regards  com- 
merce. 

On  this  subject  Dr.  Macculloch  says,  "  The  production 
of  the  Coral  Islands  of  the  great  Pacific  ocean,  which  en- 
danger this  navigation  and  that  of  the  Indian  Archipelago, 
and  are  tending  fast  to  destroy  that  of  the  Red  Sea,  is  a 
fact  completely  distinguished  from  all  other  subjects  of 
geological  investigation.  It  also  forms  a  most  interesting 
branch  of  the  present  inquiries  ;  and  it  is  the  more  indis- 
pensable to  examine  it,  because  it  has  hitherto  been  unac- 
countably neglected  by  other  geological  writers." 

"  It  is  sufficient  here,"  he  continues,  "  to  speak  in  the 
most  general  terms  of  a  tribe  of  animals,  for  whose  de- 
scription, works  on  Zoology  must  be  consulted.  In  a 
popular  view,  a  coral  is  a  calcareous  structure,  inhabited 
by  numerous  small  animals  or  polypi ;  and  each  form  of 
coral  possesses  its  own  species.  Each,  therefore,  forms 


CORAL    ISLANDS.  75 

a  sort  of  colony,  the  inhabitants  of  which  are  disposed  in 
minute  cells,  which  they  construct  themselves,  thus  pro- 
ducing the  general  structure,  by  their  joint  labors,  as  if  aL 
were  actuated  by  one  design  and  one  mind." 

"  This  is  the  obvious  appearance.  But  in  reality  the 
entire  coral  plant  is  one  animal.  A  continuous  animal 
structure  pervades  the  whole,  and  the  calcareous  matter,  in 
whatever  form,  must  be  viewed  as  the  shell,  being  a  secre- 
tion, or  deposition  of  earth  in.  its  substance." — Geology, 
vol.  1.  p.  337. 

The  coral  insects,  of  which  there  are  many  species, 
belong  to  the  class  POLYPI  and  order  Coralliferi,  of  Cu- 
vier.  See  Animal  Kingdom,  vol.  iv.  p.  387 — 95.  They 
are  a  singular  and  curious  tribe  of  animals,  some  of  which 
are  too  minute  to  be  examined  by  the  naked  eye. 

The  Coralliferi  constitute  that  numerous  suite  of  species 
which  were  formerly  considered  as  marine  plants,  and  of 
which  the  individuals  are  in  fact  united  in  great  numbers 
to  constitute  compound  animals,  mostly  fixed  like  plants ; 
either  forming  a  stem  or  simple  expansion,  by  means  of 
a  solid  internal  substance.  The  individual  animals  are  all 
connected  by  a  common  body,  and  are  nourished  in  com- 
mon, so  that  what  is  eaten  by  one  goes  to  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  general  body  of  all  the  other  polypi. — Animal 
Kingdom,  ib. 

The  common  coarse  white  coral,  full  of  pores,  may  be 
considered  as  an  aggregate  of  the  shells,  or  habitations  of 
one  family  of  these  animals.  On  inspecting  a  piece  of 
this  substance  while  growing,  or  building  under  water, 
when  these  animals  are  at  work,  small  whitish  protuber- 
ances may  be  seen  projecting  from  these  pores,  which 
being  touched,  or  on  removing  the  coral  from  the  water, 
are  seen  to  contract  and  disappear,  but  re-appear  again 
when  the  coral  is  returned  to  the  water.  These  are  the 
animals  which  construct  the  coarse  coral  only.  Those 
which  build  the  compact  kinds,  as  the  red,  white,  and 
black,  and  which  (particularly  the  red)  are  so  much  valu- 
ed for  ornamental  purposes,  are  of  a  different  species  from 
these,  and  are  so  exceedingly  minute  as  to  be  of  difficult 
detection. 

Many  species  of  this  tribe  are  free,  and  swim  with  the 
current,  but  those  which  produce  the  mighty  effects  about 
to  be  described  are  fixed  in  their  cells.  For  an  account  of 


76  CORAL    ISLANDS. 

these  species,  see  Parkins&n's  Organic  Remains,  and  Cu- 
vier's  Animal  Kingdom. 

It  is  for  geography,  not  for  a  work  of  this  nature,  to 
describe  the  islands  and  rocks  produced  by  the  coral 
tribes.  It  is  here  sufficient  to  mention  the  islands  south 
of  the  equator,  between  the  West  Coast  of  America,  and 
New  Holland,  crowding  the  whole  of  that  sea,  under  a 
rapid  increase,  accompanied  by  still  more  numerous  rocks, 
destined  perhaps  to  become  the  seats  of  vegetations,  and 
the  habitations  of  man ;  perhaps  at  length  to  form  a  conti- 
nent in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  To  these,  abounding  particu- 
larly between  New-Holland,  New-Caledonia,  and  New- 
Guinea,  I  may  add  those  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  inclu- 
ding Cosmoledo,  Chagos,  Juan  de  Nova,  Armante,  Cocos, 
and  the  Maldive,  and  Laccadive  islands. 

When  we  consider  the  feebleness  of  the  means,  and  the 
minuteness  of  the  agents,  the  extent  of  these  reefs  and 
islands  is  a  subject  of  equal  curiosity  and  surprise. 
Among  these,  Tongataboo  is  sixty  miles  in  circumference, 
and  is  elevated  ten  feet  above  the  water.  But  this  is  but 
an  insignificant  work,  when  compared  with  the  great  coral 
reef  on  the  eastern  coast  of  New-Holland,  which  extends 
in  an  uninterrupted  course  the  distance  of  three  hundred 
and  fifty  miles.  This,  together  with  several  islands  of  the 
same,  form  a  continuous  line  of  one  thousand  miles  01 
more  in  length,  varying  from  twenty  to  sixty  miles  in 
breadth.  To  form  a  just  conception  of  such  a  production, 
we  should  imagine  it  exposed  from  the  foundation.  It  is 
a  mountain  ridge,  which  bears  comparison  with  many  of 
the  larger  tracts  of  terrestrial  limestone  in  height;  the 
soundings  in  that  sea  being  generally  from  1000  to  1500 
feet  deep ;  and  with  respect  to  extent  of  range,  it  would 
far  exceed  any  limestone  formation  known. — Macculloch, 
vol.  i.— 337. 

But  though  we  may  be  astonished  at  the  vast  produc- 
tions of  these  diminutive  animals,  it  is  their  instinct  which 
ought  still  more  to  interest  and  surprise  us.  For,  when 
we  remember  that  in  many  other  instances,  numbers  do 
compensate  for  individual  weakness,  and  that  there  are 
myriads  of  millions  of  these  constantly  at  work,  our  aston- 
ishment rather  arises  from  a  consideration  of  their  num- 
bers than  the  amount  of  their  labors.  And  here  we  can- 
Bot  but  admire  the  beneficence  of  the  Creator  in  having 


CORAL    ISLANDS.  77 

given  the  pleasures  of  existence  to  such  hosts  of  instinct- 
ive beings,  and  though  buried  in  the  depths  of  the  ocean, 
their  enjoyments  are  not  less  than  if  watched  by  the  in- 
quisitive eye  of  man. 

From  the  very  low  order  of  these  animals  in  the  scale 
of  being,  \ve  should  have  little  reason  to  expect  they 
would  exhibit  any  evident  signs  cf  intelligence ;  and  yet 
as  in  other  cases,  we  can  here  trace  the  most  positive 
marks  of  design  in  the  Great  First  Cause,  in  the  adapta- 
tion of  the  means  to  the  end  proposed. 

These  animals  cannot  work  above  the  water,  and  as 
they  chiefly  inhabit  an  ocean,  where  the  wind  constantly 
blows  from  one  quarter,  they  raise  their  structure  in  a  per- 
pendicular direction  on  the  windward  side,  so  that  when 
they  come  near  the  surface  of  the  water,  where  the  rolling 
of  the  sea  would  a  part  of  the  time  leave  them  naked,  the 
waves  are  thus  broken  and  they  can  continue  their  labors 
to  the  leeward.  The  effect  of  this  arrangement  is  the 
erection  of  a  barrier  on  the  one  side,  so  that  these  little 
animals  can  work  with  facility  and  comfort  on  the  other, 
and  under  similar  circumstances,  all  the  reasoning  and  ex- 
perience of  man  would  have  answered  no  better  purpose, 
than  the  instinct  of  these  little  worms. 

After  the  windward  side  has  been  protected,  the  next 
part  raised  to  the  surface  is  at  some  distance  to  the  lee- 
ward. The  whole,  when  first  seen,  consists  of  a  chain  of 
detached  rocks  usually  placed  in  a  circular  form,  including 
an  area  of  various  dimensions,  but  often  of  several  hun- 
dred fret  in  diameter.  In  the  progress  of  the  work,  the 
intermediate  parts,  whether  circular  or  straight,  are  grad- 
ually filled  up,  so  that  on  the  outside,  the  walls  are  per- 
pendicular, and  the  water  deep,  but  within,  the  water 
gro\vs  deeper  from  the  margin  towards  the  centre,  produ- 
cing a  solid  mass  of  rock,  the  upper  part  of  which  is  in 
the  form  of  a  basin.  This  cavity  is  at  first  a  kind  of  salt 
lake,  but  is  gradually  filled  up  by  the  labors  of  the  ani- 
mals, until  finally  the  sea  is  so  far  excluded,  that  during 
calm  weather  the  rain  freshens  the  water  in  it,  and  thus 
at  once  end  the  labors  and  lives  of  these  industrious 
creatures. 

In  process  of  time,  when  these  animals  continue  their 
work  around  such  a  basin,  so  as  to  prevent  the  sea  from 
dashing  into  it,  and  the  rain  has  washed  away  all  the  salt, 
it  becomes  a  pond  of  fresh  water,  forming  a  supply  per 


78  CORAL    ISLANDS. 

nz.ps,  for  the  otherwise  perishing  mariner,  who  happens 
to  be  wrecked  on  these  bold  shores.  And  this  undoubt- 
edly is  but  a  part  of  that  beneficent  design  and  foresight, 
for  which  such  myriads  of  these  animals  were  brought 
into  life. 

The  highest  parts  of  these  reefs  being  towards  the 
wind, — at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  when  the  tides  are 
low,  these  parts  will  be  exposed  to  the  force  of  the  waves, 
Avhich  will  break  off  the  most  slender  parts,  and  wash  them 
to  the  leeward,  where  the  animals  are  still  at  work,  and 
by  whom  these  fragments  are  wedded  to  the  principal 
mass.  In  this  manner,  an  island  is  raised  permanently 
above  the  water,  and  by  a  continuance  of  the  same  pro- 
cess, considerable  islands  are  gradually  elevated  above 
high  water  mark  in  the  midst  of  the  ocean. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  imagine  how  such  islands  may  be 
clothed  with  vegetation.  The  seeds  of  plants  are  known 
to  float  thousands  of  miles,  and  still  retain  their  vegetative 
powers.  Such  seeds  taking  root  in  the  crevices  of  these 
rocks,  produce  plants,  which  by  their  annual  decay,  to- 
gether with  the  decomposed  coral,  soon  form  a  soil  fit  for 
others.  These  in  their  turn  decay,  and  in  that  warm  cli- 
mate, where  vegetation  is  luxuriant,  there  is  formed,  in  a 
few  years,  a  soil  fit  for  shrubs  and  trees. 

Many  of  these  islands  are  only  four  or  five  fed  above 
high  water  mark  ;  and  it  is  apparent,  that  the  mode  of  for- 
mation above  described,  would  require  many  centuries  to 
elevate  them  to  any  considerable  height.  Indeed,  it  is  not 
probable  that  the  parts  near  the  shore  would  ever  acquire 
any  additional  elevation,  since  occasional  high  tides 
would  carry  away  the  vegetable  matter  deposited  there. 
But  as  some  of  these  islands  are  far  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  we  must  look  for  some  other  cause  of  elevation 
besides  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  and  the  decay  of  vegeta- 
tion. Tongataboo  is  ten  feet  above  high  water,  at  the 
water's  edge,  and  even  this  is  higher  than  can  be  account- 
ed for  from  the  causes  described.  But  this  is  a  slight  ele- 
vation when  compared  with  that  of  many  others,  for  one 
of  the  Tonga  islands,  formed  entirely  of  coral,  is  in  some 
parts  more  than  300  feet  high.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to 
remark  that  this  elevation  cannot  be  accounted  for  by 
supposing  a  depression  of  the  ocean,  since  this  cause 
would  have  given  all  the  other  islands  in  that  sea  a  simi- 
lar height,  and  besides,  it  is  well  known  that  the  sea  has 


THE    DELUGE.  79 

not  materially  changed  its  level  for  the  last  2000  years. 
We  must  therefore  attribute  the  elevation  of  these  islands 
to  some  force  acting  beneath  them ;  and  as  we  are  unac- 
quainted with  any  power,  equal  to  such  an  effect,  except 
that  of  volcanoes,  so  there  can  be  little  doubt  but  the  force 
of  submarine  fire,  was  the  active  cause  of  their  elevation. 
One  of  these  islands,  indeed,  contains  a  volcano  always 
on  fire. 


THE    DELUGE. 

No  part  of  the  Mosaic  history  has  produced  more  ridi- 
cule, among  infidels,  or  has  been  attacked  with  greater 
hopes  of  success,  than  that  of  the  universal  deluge. 

"  That  the  whole  earth,  (say  these  men,)  was  ever  sur- 
rounded with  water  so  deep  as  to  cover  all  its  mountains, 
is  a  supposition  not  only  unphilosophical,  but  absolutely 
impossible.  It  is  unphilosophical,  because  even  admitting 
that  there  is  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  in  the  sea  to 
produce  such  a  deluge,  still  no  adequate  cause  can  be  as- 
signed for  the  production  of  such  mighty  effects.  But 
allowing  a  cause  which  might  have  moved  the  whole 
ocean  out  of  its  bed,  and  cast  it  upon  the  land,  still  such 
an  effect  could  not  have  been  produced  as  a  universal  flood, 
since  it  would  have  required  many  times  more  water  than 
exists  on  the  whole  earth,  to  have  covered  all  its  mountains 
at  the  same  time." 

We  shall  not  stop  to  answer  these  objections,  but  pro- 
ceed to  show,  that  notwithstanding  these  and  many  more 
have  been  urged  against  the  probability  of  the  Noachian 
flood,  still  no  fact  can  be  better  established,  since  it  has 
the  concurrent  testimony  of  sacred,  natural,  and  civil  his- 
tory in  its  favor. 

The  period  of  the  deluge  is  fixed  by  chronological 
writers  at  the  year  1 656,  after  the  creation,  corresponding 
to  the  year  2348  before  the  Christian  era.  These  two 
sums  make  the  period  of  the  creation,  4004  years  B.  C. 
According  to  Mr.  Blair,  on  the  10th  day  of  the  second 
month,  which  was  on  Sunday,  Nov.  30th,  B.  C.  2347,  God 
commanded  Noah  and  his  family  to  enter  into  the  ark  ; 
and  on  the  next  Sunday,  December  7,  it  began  to  rain, 
and  continued  to  rain  forty  days,  after  which  the  deluge 


80  THE    DELUGE. 

prevailed  110  days,  making  its  continuance  150  days  from 
the  beginning.  On  Wednesday,  May  6th,  2348  B.  C.  the 
ark  rested  on  Mount  Ararat.  The  tops  of  the  mountains 
became  visible  on  Sunday,  July  19th,  and  on  Friday,  No- 
vember 18th,  Noah  and  all  they  that  were  with  him  came 
forth  out  of  the  ark. 

Without  reference  to  sacred  history,  we  never  could 
have  known  the  time  when  this  great  flood  happened — 
the  fact  itself,  although  we  ought  to  require  nothing  more 
than  the  word  of  that  history  to  establish  its  truth,  is  still 
capable  of  the  strongest  proof  from  the  appearance  of  the 
earth's  surface.  Baron  Cuvier,  after  having  spent  a  large 
portion  of  a  long  life  in  investigating  the  natural  history 
of  the  earth,  comes  to  the  following  conclusions  on  the 
subject  of  the  universal  deluge, 

"  I  can  concur,"  says  he,  "with  the  opinions  of  M.  M. 
De  Luc  and  Dolomieu,  that  if  there  be  any  thing  deter- 
mined in  geology,  it  is  that  the  surface  of  our  globe  has 
been  subject  to  a  vast  and  sudden  revolution,  not  longer 
ago  than  five  or  six  thousand  years ;  that  this  revolution 
has  buried  and  caused  to  disappear,  the  countries  former- 
ly inhabited  by  man,  and  the  species  of  animals  now  most 
known,  that,  on  the  contrary,  it  has  left  the  bottom  of  the 
former  sea  dry,  and  has  formed  on  it  the  countries  now  in- 
habited ;  that  since  this  revolution  those  few  individuals 
whom  it  spared,  have  propagated  and  spread  over  the  lands 
newly  left  dry,  and  consequently  it  is  only  since  this  epoch, 
that  our  societies  have  assumed  a  progressive  march  ;  have 
formed  establishments ;  raised  monuments,  and  combined 
scientific  systems." — Cuvier  Revolu.  Globe,  180. 

The  effects  of  that  grand  and  awful  cataclysm  are  still 
to  be  traced  in  every  country,  and  in  nearly  every  section 
of  country  on  the  globe.  Vast  accumulations  of  rounded, 
or  water  worn  pebbles,  huge  blocks  of  granite,  and  im- 
mense beds  of  sand  and  gravel,  are  found  in  places  where 
no  causes  now  in  operation  ever  could  have  placed  them; 
and  still  that  they  have  been  moved  is  evident  from  the 
circumstances,  or  the  places  where  they  occur.  "  In  the 
whole  course  of  my  geological  travels,"  says  Prof.  Buck- 
land,  "  from  Cornwall  to  Caithness,  from  Calais  to  the 
Carpathians ;  in  Ireland,  in  Italy,  I  have  scarcely  ever 
gone  a  mile  without  finding  a  perpetual  succession  of  de- 
posites  of  gravel,  sand  or  loam,  in  situations  that  cannot 
be  referred  to  the  action  of  modern  torrents,  rivers  or 


THE    DELUGE.  81 

lakes,  or  any  other  existing  causes.  And,  with  respect  to 
the  still  more  striking  diluvial  phenomena  of  drifted  mass- 
es of  rock,  the  greater  part  of  the  northern  hemisphere, 
from  Moscow  to  the  Mississippi,  is  described  by  various 
geological  travellers,  as  strewed  on  its  hills  as  well  as  its 
valleys,  with  blocks  of  granite,  and  other  rocks  of  enor 
mous  magnitude,  which  have  been  drifted  (mostly  in  a  di- 
rection from  north  to  south,)  a  distance,  sometimes  many 
hundred  miles  from  their  native  beds,  across  mountains, 
valleys,  lakes  and  seas,  by  a  force  of  water,  which  must 
have  possessed  a  velocity  to  which  nothing  that  occurs  in 
the  actual  state  of  the  globe,  affords  the  slightest  parallel." 
— See  ReliquicR  Diluviance. 

If  it  be  inquired  how  it  can  be  ascertained  that  blocks 
of  granite  have  been  transported  from  a  distance,  and 
that  they  do  not  belong  to  disrupted  mountains  in  the 
vicinity,  it  is  answered  that  there  is  a  peculiarity  in  every 
formation  or  range  of  rocks  or  mountains,  by  which  the 
mineralogist  can  readily  distinguish  them.  Thus  the  cal- 
careous rock  of  Gibraltar,  and  the  iron  ore  of  Elba,  spe- 
cimens of  which  every  collection  contains,  are  readily 
distinguished  even  by  the  most  common  observer  from  all 
other  minerals.  To  the  practised  eye  of  a  mineralogist, 
combined  with  the  analysis  of  the  chemist,  no  difficulty 
occurs  in  identifying  any  specimen  with  the  rock  to  which 
it  belongs. 

On  the  secondary  mountains  of  Jura,  particularly  on 
the  slopes  facing  the  Alps,  a  great  many  loose  fragments 
of  primitive  rock,  some  of  them  containing  a  thousand 
cubic  yards,  occur.  These  are  strewed  over  the  surface, 
at  the  height  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  lake  of  Geneva.  They  no  where  stand  high- 
er, or  are  more  numerous  than  opposite  to  the  largest, 
and  deepest  valleys  of  the  Alps.  They  have  undoubtedly 
travelled  across  the  line  of  these  valleys,  their  composi- 
tion proving  clearly,  the  mountain  ridges  from  which  they 
came.  We  may  hence  infer,  that  at  the  period  of  their 
transfer  from  the  Savoy  Alps,  the  lake  of  Geneva  did  not 
exist,  otherwise  they  must  have  remained  at  its  bottom,  in- 
stead of  being  found  on  its  opposite  boundary  mountain. 
— Ure's  Geology,  p.  362. 

In  estimating  the  transporting  power  of  water,  it  must 
not  be  forgotten,  as  already  noticed,  that  a  solid,  when 
immersed  in  a  fluid  becomes  lighter  by  the  weight  of  the 


82  THE    DELUDE. 

bulk  of  the  fluid  which  it  displaces.  Thus,  if  a  rock  be 
twice  as  heavy,  bulk  for  bulk,  as  water,  then  when  im- 
mersed in  that  fluid,  it  loses  just  one  half  its  weight.  A 
man  may  lift  a  stone  under  water  with  great  ease,  but  if 
not  aware  of  the  above  fact,  he  will  be  astonished  to  find 
that  he  cannot,  with  all  his  might,  raise  it  above  the  sur- 
face. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  conceiving  that  immense  blocks 
of  rock  may  be  moved  by  water,  since  the  weight  lost  by 
immersion,  is  in  exact  proportion  to  the  bulk ;  and  there- 
fore if  a  little  brook  will  move  a  pebble,  by  the  same  law, 
a  great  flood  will  transport  a  mountain.  The  blocks  of 
granite  found  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  lake  of  Geneva, 
were  probably  carried  there  by  the  action  of  the  deluge, 
after  which  the  retiring  waters  scooped  out  the  lake,  and 
left  both  in  the  situation  in  which  they  are  now  found. 
Many  of  the  plains  on  the  north  of  Europe,  exhibit  on  their 
surfaces,  large  blocks  of  granite,  called  boulders,  with  their 
sharp  angles  worn  off,  showing  that  they  hdve  been  rolled 
from  a  distance.  Their  surfaces  never  exhibit  the  smooth- 
ness of  sea-worn  pebbles,  nor  do  their  forms  show  the  ef- 
fects of  long-continued  friction,  like  rocks  which  are  found 
on  the  shores  of  the  ocean,  a  proof  that  the  catastrophe 
which  forced  them  from  their  original  situations  was  not 
of  long  continuance.  Sir  James  Hall  has  even  discovered 
the  traces  of  such  movements  on  rocks  now  in  their  ori- 
ginal situations  in  the  f  icinity  of  Edinburgh.  That  dis- 
trict consists  of  hills  and  valleys,  the  surfaces  of  which  are 
strewed  with  the  wrecks  of  former  rocks,  which  have  been 
moved  from  their  ancient  positions  by  some  mighty  pow- 
er. Channels,  or  furrows  may  be  observed  on  the  surfaces 
of  solid  rocks,  across  which  these  have  been  forced.  The 
clay,  covering  the  surfaces  of  these  rocks,  being  removed, 
they  are  found  to  resemble  a  road  along  which  many 
heavy  bodies  have  been  recently  dragged,  as  if  every 
heavy  fragment  had  made  a  scratch  of  greater  or  less 
depth  as  it  passed.  These  furrows  are  parallel  to  the  gen- 
eral direction  in  which  the  diluvial  current  passed,  as 
shown  by  the  forms  of  the  hills  and  valleys. 

That  the  diluvial  waters -reached  the  summits  of  lofty 
mountains,  is  evident  from  the  boulder  blocks  of  Mount 
Blanc,  being  thrown  over  on  the  high  acclivities  of  Mount 
Jura.  Professor  Buckland  says,  that  the  Alps  and  Car- 
pathians, as  well  as  every  other  mountainous  region  which 


THE    DELUGE.  83 

he  has  visited,  boar  the  same  evidence  of  having  been 
modified  by  the  force  of  water,  as  do  the  hills  of  the  lower 
regions. 

Besides  the  evidence  which  the  situations  of  rocky 
masses  exhibit  of  a  great  flood,  there  are  proofs  of  the 
same,  to  be  found  almost  everywhere  among  the  hills  and 
valleys.  Thus  many  hills  have  been  formed  by  the  re- 
moval of  the  earth,  which  forms  the  valley  between  them, 
circumstances  proving  that  such  valleys  did  not  always 
exist,  but  that  the  strata  forming  the  two  hills  were  once 
continuous. 

Suppose  that  on  digging  wells,  on  two  hills  separated 
by  a  valley,  there  should  be  found  a  bed  of  gravel  ten  feet 
thick,  then  a  layer  of  clay,  then  a  bed  of  chalk,  &c.,  and 
that  these  formations  should  correspond  exactly  with  each 
other,  both  in  respect  to  kind,  direction  and  thickness; 
then  the  inference  would  be  unavoidable,  that  these  strata 
once  continued  through  the  valley,  and  that  both  the  hills 
and  valley  were  formed  by  the  removal  of  the  earth  from 
the  latter,  and  that  this  must  have  been  effected  by  a  stream 
of  water  now  existing,  or  by  a  great  flood.  But  in  the 
cases  to  which  we  refer  no  such  streams  exist,  nor  from 
appearances  ever  did  exist,  there  being  no  sources  of  water 
by  which  they  could  be  supplied. 


No  adequate  cause  can  therefore  be  assigned  for  such 
an  effect,  except  it  be  the  Noachian  deluge.  The  adjoin- 
ing cut  shows  the  two  hills ;  the  correspondence  of  the 
strata  through  each,  and  the  wells  by  which  they  are 
pierced.  Such  examples,  it  is  believed,  are  of  very  com- 
mon occurrence,  and  would  often  be  observed  were  due 
notice  taken  of  the  strata  when  digoing  wells  on  opposite 
hills. 

Immense  beds  of  sand  and  water-worn  pebbles  are  found 
deposited  in  places  and  situations  which  cannot  be  account- 
ed for  on  any  supposition,  except  that  of  a  temporary  and 
sweeping  flood  of  waters. 


84  THE   DELUGE. 

Mr.  de  la  Beche,  under  the  head 
of  "Erratic  Block  Group,'1  "Geolo- 
gical Manual,"  p.  157,  has  described 
and  figured  a  deposition  of  gravel 
which  occurs  at  Warren  Point,  near 
Dawlish,  and  which  we  copy  as  an 
illustration  of  the  subject.  The  fig- 
ure is  a  section  of  the  point,  and  is  a 
mixed  example  of  a  fault,  and  of 
transported  gravel  upon  it,  b  b,  con- 
glomerates, or  pudding  stones,  and 
c  c,  strata  of  the  red  sandstone  formation,  fractured  or 
broken  into  faults,  by  the  dykes  /  f,  so  that  continuous 
strata  are  displaced  as  seen  in  the  cut.  Upon  these  frac- 
tured strata  rests  a  bed  of  gravel  a  a,  composed  of  chalk, 
flints,  and  green  flinty  sand,  mixed  with  a  few  pebbles 
similar  to  those  in  the  conglomerates  b  b.  This  sand  has 
evidently  been  deposited  since  the  fracture,  for  it  rests 
quietly  upon  it,  and  appears  never  to  have  been  disturbed 
since  its  deposition.  The  chalk  and  green  sand  of  this 
district  have  once  covered  very  considerable  spaces, 
though  the  latter  is  now  seen  only  on  I-laldon  Hills,  near 
this  section,  but  separated  from  it  by  an  intervening  val- 
ley. There  are  many  other  dislocations  so  covered  on 
the  same  coast,  (Plymouth  ;)  where  these  appearances 
can  be  observed  with  the  greatest  ease,  especially  at  low 
water. 

"  It  might  be  supposed,"  says  Mr.  De  La  Beche,  "  that 
these  chalk  flints  and  pieces  of  chert,  (a  flinty  stone,)  were 
merely  the  remains  of  superincumbent  masses  of  chalk  and 
green  sand,  which  have  been  destroyed,  by  meteoric  agents, 
the  harder  parts  falling  down  on  the  top  of  the  fracture. 
We  can  scarcely  consider  this  physically  probable,  or 
even  possible;  for  it  supposes  the  removal  of  more  than 
600  feet  of  sandstone  and  conglomerate,  (for  not  until  that 
height  above  this  section  would  the  green  sand  and  chalk 
come  on,)  without  scarcely  leaving  any  of  the  pebbles,  cr 
large  masses  of  the  red  sandstone,  while  the  flints  and 
cherts,  which  belonged  to  the  upper,  and  consequently 
first  destroyed  rocks,  remain." 

"  Let  us  now  consider,"  continues  our  author,  "another 
class  of  appearances.  Over  the  whole  of  this  district^ 
(Plymouth,)  where  transported  gravel  occurs,  the  sur- 
face of  the  rocks,  (it  being  of  no  importance  what  they 


THE    DELUGE.  85 

happen  to  be,)  is  drilled  into  cavities  and  holes,  similar 
to  those  well  known  on  the  chalk  of  the  east  of  England. 
The  following  sections  will  illustrate  this. 

a,  a,  gravel,  principally  of  flint 
and  chert,  resting  in  a  hollow  of 
the  red  sandstone,  b,  b,  between 
Teignmouth  and  Dawlish,  the 
lines  in  the  gravel  following  the 
outline  of  the  cavity. 

a,  a,  in  the  next  figure,  is  gra- 
vel composed  in  a  great  mea- 
sure of  flints,  among  which  are 
some  large  rounded  pieces  of 

silicious  breccia,  resting  on  ca- 
vities in  pipe-clay. 

"  Other  examples  might  easily  be  adduced,  but  these  are 
here  given,  because  the  geological  student  can  easily  ob- 
serve'them.  They  seem  to  point  to  some  general  agent, 
which  in  its  passage  over  the  land,  has  produced  similar 
effects  on  various  rocks,  forming  cavities,  and  depositing 
fragments,  transported  from  greater  or  less  distances." 

Mr.  De  Li  Beche  further  remarks,  "  that  the  form  of 
the  valleys  in  that  district  are  gentle  and  rounded,  and 
such  as  no  complication  of  meteoric  causes,  that  inge- 
nuity can  imagine,  seems  capable  of  producing  ;  that  nu- 
merous valleys  occur  on  the  lines  of  the  faults;  and  that 
the  detritus  "(broken  rocks)  is  dispersed  in  a  way  that 
cannot  be  accounted  for  by  the  present  action  of  mere 
atmospheric  waters.  I  will  more  particularly  remark," 
says  he,  "  that  on  Great  Haldon  Hill,  about  900  feet 
above  the  sea,  pieces  of  rock  which  must  have  been  de- 
rived from  levels  not  greater  than  700  or  800  feet,  and 
even  less,  occur  in  the  superficial  gravel.  They  certainly 
are  rare,  but  may  be  discovered  by  diligent  search.  I  there 
found  pieces  of  red  sandstone,  porphyry,  and  a  compact 
silicious  rock,  not  uncommon  in  the  graywacke  of  the 
vicinity,  where  all  the  rocks  occur  at  a  lower  level  than 
the  summit  of  Haldon,  and  where  certainly  they  could  not 
have  been  carried  by  rains  or  rivers,  unless  the  latter  be 
supposed  to  delight  in  running  up  hill." 

In  continuing  this  subject  with  respect  to  the  lowlands 
of  Sidmouth  and  Lyme,  Mr.  De  La  Beche  says,  "  it  may 
sometimes  be  possible,  with  the  aid  of  ingenuity,  to  pro- 
duce a  case  of  transport  by  a  long  continuance  of  such 

e 


00  THE    DELUGE. 

natural  effects  as  are  now  seen,  but  in  other  situations, 
such  explanations  seem  altogether  valueless,  and  unphilo- 
sophical. 

Not  only  are  gravels  brought  from  various  distances, 
but  even  huge  blocks,  the  transport  of  which,  by  actual 
causes,  into  their  present  situations,  seem  physically  im- 
possible. Professor  Buckland  mentions  that  he  found 
among  the  transported  gravel  of  Durham,  twenty  varieties 
of  slate  and  greenstone,  which  do  not  occur  in  places 
nearer  than  the  lake  district  of  Cumberland.  Professor 
Sedgwick  remarks  that  the  boulders  of  Shap  granite, 
which  is  so  peculiar  as  not  to  be  confounded  with  any 
other  rocks  in  the  north  of  England,  are  not  only  drifted 
over  the  hills  of  Appleby,  but  have  been  scattered  over 
the  plain  of  new  red  sand  stones  ;  rolled  over  the  great 
central  chain  of  England  into  the  plains  of  Yorkshire  ; — 
imbedded  in  transported  matter  of  the  Zees ;  and  even 
carried  to  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Island. — Ann.  of  Phil. 
1825. 

Between  the  Thames  and  the  Tweed,  pebbles,  and  even 
blocks  of  rock,  are  discovered,  of  such  a  character  that 
they  have  been  considered,  we  believe,  by  all  competent 
judges,  as  having  been  derived  from  the  coast  of  Norway, 
where  only  similar  rocks  are  known  to  exist. 

Mr.  Phillips  states,  that  the  diluvial  accumulation  in 
Holderness,  on  the  coast  of  Yorkshire,  is  composed  of  a 
base  of  clay,  containing  fragments  of  pre-existing  rocks, 
varying  in  roundness  and  size.  The  rocks  from  which 
the  fragments  appear  to  have  been  transported  are  found, 
some  in  Norway ;  others  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland, 
and  in  the  mountains  of  Cumberland — others,  in  the  north- 
western and  western  parts  of  Yorkshire ;  and  no  incon 
siderable  portion  appears  to  have  come  from  the  sea 
coast  of  Durham,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Whitby. 
In  proportion  to  the  distance  they  have  travelled  is  the 
degree  of  roundness  they  have  acquired. — Phillips'  Illus. 
Geol.  Yorkshire. 

In  this  country  similar  phenomena  almost  everywhere 
present  themselves  to  the  eye  of  the  observer.  Beds  of 
water-worn  pebbles,  such  as  are  now  found  only  on  the 
borders  of  the  sea ;  and  immense  blocks  of  granite  lying 
in  situations  to  which  it  is  evident  they  must  have  been 
transported,  and  where  no  causes  now  in  operation  could 
possibly  have  placed  them,  are  not  uncommon  occurrences. 


THE    DELUGE.  87 

The  whole  of  Long  Island  is  either  a  diluvial  or  a  ter- 
tiary formation,  and  in  which  bones  are  sometimes  found. 
Near  the  east  end  of  that  island  lies  the  skeleton  of  a  whale, 
a  mile  from  the  shore.  A  part  of  the  bones  are,  or  were, 
a  few  years  ago,  in  a  good  state  of  preservation.  The 
same  formations  extend  to  various  distances  from  the  sea, 
along  the  coasts  of  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia, 
and  the  other  maritime  states,  to  Alabama.  Through  the 
greatest  part  of  this  immense  tract,  diluvian  deposites,  with 
shells,  are  found.  In  New  Jersey,  from  ten  to  twenty 
feet  below  the  surface  of  this  formation,  is  found  a  green- 
ish blue  marl,  containing  various  shells,  as  Ammonites, 
Bellemnites,  Chama,  Ostrea,  Terebratula,  &c.  (These 
will  be  found  figured  and  described  towards  the  end  of 
this  volume.) 

Boulders  of  various  sizes  are  seen  in  many  places.  In 
East  Lyme,  Ct.  near  the  road  leading  from  Rope  Ferry 
to  Saybrook,  at  a  location  called  Keeney's  hill,  there  is  a 
huge  block  of  granite,  weighing,  by  estimate,  nearly  four 
hundred  tons.  Any  person,  after  a  moment's  considera- 
tion, would  conclude  that  this  rock  must  have  been  trans- 
ported from  a  distance ;  for  its  present  situation  is  in  an 
open  field,  on  or  near  the  summit  of  a  considerable  hill, 
there  being  no  rocks  of  the  same,  or  indeed  of  any  kind 
on  the  surface  near  it.  On  examining  the  neighborhood, 
however,  the  inquirer  will  soon  find  that  it  came  from  a 
granite  hill,  of  small  elevation,  situated  about  two  miles 
in  a  northwest  direction,  and  therefore  must  have  been 
moved  towards  the  southeast,  and  this  is  confirmed  by  the 
direction  of  the  hill  on  which  the  rock  stands,  and  of  the 
valley  below.  The  erratic  rocks  of  Europe  have  all  been 
moved  in  the  same  direction. 

Professor  Hitchcock,  in  his  report  on  the  Geology  of 
Massachusetts,  appears  to  have  examined  the  diluvial  de- 
posites of  that  state  with  much  attention,  and  has  shown 
that  the  current  there,  was  also  from  the  north  and  north- 
west, towards  the  southeast.  "The  conclusion,"  says 
he,  "  to  which  I  have  been  irresistibly  forced  by  an  exam- 
ination of  this  stratum  in  Massachusetts,  is,  that  all  the 
diluvium,  which  had  been  previously  accumulated  by  va- 
rious agencies  has  been  modified  by  a  powerful  deluge, 
sweeping  from  the  north  and  northwest,  over  every  part 
of  the  state,  not  excepting  the  highest  mountains ;  and  that 
since  that  deluge,  none  but  alluvial  agencies  have  been 
operating  to  change  the  surface." 


88  THE    DELUGE. 

"  The  diluvium  of  Plymouth  and  Barnstable,"  he  con- 
tinues, "  consists  almost  entirely  of  white  sand,  some  peb- 
bles, and  a  very  large  number  of  boulders  of  primary 
rocks.  These  boulders  consist  chiefly  of  granite,  sienite, 
and  gneiss,  with  occasional  masses  of  gray  wacke  conglom- 
erate, common  felspar  and  porphyry.  They  all  corres- 
pond with  the  rocks  found  in  place  along  that  coast,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Boston  and  Cape  Ann  ;  and  no  one,  it  appears  to 
me,  can  see  the  marks  of  degradation  along  that  coast, 
who  will  not  be  convinced  that  a  large  portion  of  the  peb- 
bles and  boulders  of  Plymouth  and  Barnstable  counties, 
came  from  thence  " — p.  142 — 3. 

Some  of  the  boulders  are  from  ten  to  twenty,  and  even 
thirty  feet  in  diameter,  and  frequently  occupy  nearly  the 
whole  surface,  so  that  one  can  hardly  persuade  himself, 
when  he  examines  them  at  a  distance,  that  they  are  not 
genuine  ledges. 

In  various  parts  of  the  state,  the  diluvium  is  piled  up 
in  elevations  of  various  extent  and  height,  leaving  corres- 
ponding depressions.  Near  the  extremity  of  Cape  Cod, 
the  hills  and  valleys  thus  formed,  are  of  astonishing  height 
and  depth,  the  elevations  being  sometimes  300  feet ;  and 
yet  these  inequalities  are  obviously  the  results  of  currents 
of  water,  since  they  are  precisely  of  the  same  shape  of 
those  seen  in  the  dry  beds  of  rivers. 

Examples  of  the  diluvial  action,  if  not  equalled  in  the 
magnitude  of  its  effects,  are  still  as  apparent  to  the  observ- 
er in  almost  every  part  of  the  state. 

Fig.  4. 


Another  class  of  effects,  from  which  professor  Hitch- 
cock not  only  concludes  that  a  mighty  current  of  water 
once  swept  over  the  surface  of  Massachusetts,  but  from 
which  he  also  infers  its  direction,  is  the  existence  of 


THE    DELUGE.  89 

grooves,  furrows,  and  scratches  upon  the  surfaces  of  the 
rocks  that  have  never  been  moved  from  their  places. 

The  adjoining  sketch,  fig.  4,  exhibits  a  rock  of  this  de- 
scription, near  the  turnpike  from  Boston  to  Chelmsford, 
near  the  line  between  Bedford  and  Billerica,  and  not  far 
from  the  sixteenth  mile  stone  from  Boston.  The  rock  is 
intermediate  between  gneiss  and  mica  slate.  Its  strata 
seams  run  in  the  direction  of  a  a ;  and  the  grooves  and 
scratches  in  the  direction  b  b.  The  direction  of  these 
grooves  is  nearly  north  and  south  ;  and  this  is  their  gener- 
al course  in  every  part  of  the  State,  east  of  Hoosac  moun- 
tain. Commonly,  however,  they  run  a  few  degrees  east 
of  south  and  west  of  north. 

A  great  number  of  other  instances  are  adduced,  present- 
ing similar  phenomena,  in  different  parts  of  the  State,  all 
of  which  correspond  with  the  above,  in  respect  to  the  di- 
rection of  the  furrows. 

Mr.  De  La  Beche,  after  having  described  the  various 
facts  which  exist  in  many  parts  of  Britain,  indicating  the 
transportation  of  rocks,  stones,  and  sand,  comes  to  the  fol- 
lowing conclusions.  "  The  probability,  therefore,  as  far  as 
the  above  facts  seem  to  warrant,  is,  that  a  body  of  water 
has  proceeded  from  north  to  south  over  the  British  isles, 
moving  with  sufficient  velocity  to  transport  fragments  of 
rock  from  Norway  to  the  Shetland  isles,  and  the  eastern 
coast  of  England ;  the  course  of  such  a  body  of  water  hav- 
ing been  modified  and  obstructed  among  the  valleys,  hills, 
and  mountains,  which  it  encountered ;  so  that  various  mi- 
nor and  low  currents  having  been  produced,  the  distribu- 
tion of  detritus  has  been  in  various  directions." 

If  the  supposition  of  a  mass  of  waters  having  passed 
over  Britain  be  founded  on  probability,  the  evidences  of 
such  a  passage,  or  passages,  should  be  found  in  the  neigh- 
boring continent  of  Europe,  and  the  general  direction  of 
the  transported  substances  should  be  the  same.  Now  this 
is  precisely  what  we  do  find.  In  Sweden  and  Russia, 
large  blocks  of  rock  occur  out  of  place,  in  great  numbers, 
and  no  doubt  can  be  entertained,  that  they  have  been  trans- 
ported southward  from  the  north.  The  same  phenomena 
are  observed  in  Germany,  the  Netherlands,  and  indeed  in 
nearly  every  part  of  the  old  world,  where  observations 
have  been  made.  The  lower  parts  of  the  last  named 
countries  contain  huge  blocks  of  transported  rock,  which 
8* 


90  THE    DELUGE. 

are  proved  by  their  mineralogical  characters,  to  have  been 
derived  from  the  northern  regions. 

South  of  Germany  and  the  Netherlands,  various  obstruc- 
tions arise  in  the  form  of  mountains ;'  and  if  the  supposition 
of  a  mass  of  waters  be  correct,  it  would  be  thrown  out  of 
its  original  course,  in  various  directions,  and  from  lofty 
mountain  ranges,  such  as  the  Alps,  there  would  be  a  re- 
action, and  a  back  wave  retrograding  through  the  valleys, 
would  leave  deposites,  perhaps  in  the  form  of  small  hills, 
as  is  often  seen  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  M.  Elie  de 
Beaumont  has  described,  probably,  the  effects  of  such  a 
backward  action,  in  an  immense  quantity  of  debris  which 
has  been  driven  from  the  central  chain  of  the  Alps,  out- 
wards. 

A  question  of  importance  now  presents  itself,  with  re- 
spect to  the  general  changes  which  were  produced  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth  by  this  moving  mass  of  waters.  Did 
the  valleys  exist  as  they  do  now,  when  this  deluge  began, 
or  were  they  formed  by  its  action  ?  De  Luc,  Von  Bush, 
Beaumont,  and  several  other  geologists  of  the  first  class, 
have  presented  the  world  with  a  detail  of  facts,  from  which 
they  all  infer  that  the  great  valleys  existed  previously  to 
the  catastrophe  which  tore  the  rocks  from  the  Alps,  and 
scattered  them  on  either  side  of  that  chain  of  mountains. 
It  is  most  probable  that  the  same  conclusion  ought  to  be 
drawn,  with  respect  to  all  other  great  valleys,  there  being 
no  good  reason  to  believe,  that  they  were  excavated  by  the 
waters  which  transported  the  rocks  and  sand  banks  above 
described.  Still,  as  we  have  already  noticed,  there  is  no 
doubt  but  the  mass  of  waters  which  moved  rocks  weighing 
hundreds  of  tons,  often  to  the  distance  of  many  leagues, 
produced  great  changes  on  the  surface  of  this  globe,  and 
that  many,  or  perhaps  most  of  the  smaller  valleys,  as  well 
as  the  beds  of  rivers,  may  be  attributed  to  its  effects. 

From  the  facts  and  circumstances  thus  thrown  together, 
there  is  sufficient  evidence  that  the  earth  has  been  de- 
luged by  a  flood  of  water,  which  in  its  course  transported 
great  masses  of  rock  from  one  place  to  another ;  excavated 
valleys,  formed  hills  of  diluvial  detritus,  and  finally  left 
its  effects  on  the  surface  of  the  globe,  which  are  almost 
everywhere  apparent  at  the  present  day.  Geologists  gen- 
erally agree  that  this  deluge  could  not  have  taken  place 
at  a  very  remote  period  of  time ;  perhaps  four  or  five  thou- 
sand years  ago,  and  therefore  this  period  corresponds  suf- 


THE    DELUGE.  91 

ficiently  near  to  that  at  which  the  Mosaic  history  states 
the  Noachian  deluge  to  have  happened,  to  convince  any 
unprejudiced  mind  that  the  effects  of  water  above  describ- 
ed, can  only  be  imputed  to  that  flood,  an  account  of  which 
is  given  in  the  book  of  Genesis. 

Animals  destroyed  by  the  deluge.  The  animals  suppos- 
ed to  have  been  destroyed  by  the  deluge,  and  whose  re- 
mains have  been  discovered  in  diluvial  deposites,  are  the 
following.  It  is  not  certain,  however,  that  the  destruction 
of  the  whole  list  was  contemporaneous,  but  the  bones  of 
all  are  found  in  superficial  gravels,  sands  or  clays,  which 
believers  in  the  Mosaic  account  consider  as  belonging  to 
the  effects  of  the  general  and  punitive  deluge. 

1.  Elephas  primigenius,  (Blumenbach,)  Primitive  Ele- 
phant.    Remains  found  in  various  parts  of  Europe.    Very 
common  in  Siberia,  Russia,  and  most  northern  parts  of 
Asia,  where  the  tusks  are  uninjured,  and  are  dug  up  and 
sold  for  ivory  to  a  great  extent.     It  is  also  found  in  the 
northern  parts  of  North  America.     This  is  the  mammoth 
of  the  Russians. 

2.  Mastodon  maximus,   (Cuvier,)  Great  Mastodon. — 
Found  in  Ohio,  Kentucky,  New  York,  and  other  parts 
of  North  America.     It  has  tusks  like  the  Elephant,  but 
was  a  larger  animal.     It  is  the  mammoth  of  the  Americans. 
Of  this  animal,  there  are  six  species,  differing  chiefly  with 
respect  to  size.     The  M.  maximus  is  found  only  in  North 
America.     The  other  species  occur  in  various  parts  of 
Europe,  and  in  South  America. 

3.  Hippopotamus  major,  (Cuvier,)  Great  Hippopotamus. 
Found  in  various  parts  of  England,  and  in  Bavaria. 

Hippopotamus  minutus.  Little  Hippopotamus.  It  is 
found  in  France. 

4.  Rhinoceros.     Cuvier  has  determined  four  species  of 
this  animal  in  the  fossil  state,  none  of  which  belong  to 
either  of  the  three  living  species.     These  fossil  bones  are 
common  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  but  none  of  them  have 
been  found  in  America. 

5.  Tapirus  giganteus.    The  bones  of  the  gigantic  Tapir 
are  found  in  many  parts  of  France,  Bavaria,  and  Austria. 

6.  Cervus  giganteus.     Great  Elk.     Found  in  Ireland, 
Silesia,  banks  of  the  Rhine,  and  near  Paris. 

7.  Cervus.    Several  species  of  extinct  deer  are  found  in 
various  parts  of  Europe. 


92  THE    DELUGK. 

Bos.  The  Ox.  The  bones  of  the  ox  tribe  are  common 
in  several  parts  of  Europe. 

8.  Hyena.     The  fossil  remains  of  this  animal,  are  also 
common  in  Europe. 

9.  Equus.     The  Horse.     Common  in  many  places. 

10.  Megalonyx.     (Jefferson,)  Green  Briar.     Virginia. 
Not  yet  found  in  any  other  place. 

11.  Megatherium.     Buenos  Ayres. 

Historical  proofs  of  the  Deluge.  Notwithstanding  the 
abundant  proofs,  which,  in  the  opinions  of  most  geologists, 
the  earth  presents  of  a  general  deluge,  there  are  still  some 
respectable  writers  on  that  subject,  who,  giving  no  credit 
to  the  Mosaic  history,  seek  out  other  causes,  to  which  they 
attribute  the  effects  generally  assigned  to  that  catastrophe. 

It  is  a  point  of  great  importance  in  geology,  to  show 
clearly,  that  this  earth  was  once  drowned  by  a  flood  of 
waters,  because  if  this  be  not  a  truth,  few  facts  in  the  natu- 
ral history  of  the  earth  can  be  depended  upon,  since  few 
are  better  established,  than  that  there  was  a  deluge.  This 
being  in  relation  to  our  subject,  merely  a  question  of  sci- 
ence, we  at  present  claim  nothing  for  the  truth  of  the 
Mosaic  history,  as  an  argument  in  its  favor. 

The  fact  of  a  universal  cataclysm  is  not  only  shown  by 
the  appearance  of  the  earth,  but  by  civil  history,  by  tradi- 
tion, and  by  the  condition  and  number  of  its  inhabitants. 

The  paucity  of  mankind,  and  the  vast  tracts  of  unin- 
habited land  which  are  mentioned  in  the  history  of  the 
primitive  ages,  show  that  the  human  race  at  present  on 
the  earth,  are  but  of  recent  origin,  and  that  they  sprung 
from  a  small  stock ;  and  to  this  may  be  added  that  the 
great  number  of  petty  kingdoms  and  states  in  the  first 
ages,  concur  to  the  same  purpose. — Home's  Introduction, 
vol.  i.  p.  170. 

The  existing  population  in  North  America,  is  in  itself 
sufficient  to  show  the  recent  origin  of  the  present  race  of 
man.  Had  the  millions  of  people  which  existed  before 
the  deluge,  continued  to  increase  in  the  same  ratio  that 
the  Americans  have,  during  the  last  two  hundred  years, 
and  this  without  reference  to  emmigration,  is  it  probable 
that  any  part  of  this  earth  would  now  remain  uninhabited? 
Were  we  to  make  an  estimate  of  the  number  of  inhabitants 
which  North  America  will  contain  two  thousand  years 
hence,  taking  the  last  two  hundred  as  data,  where  should 


THE    DELUGE.  93 

we  find  a  vacant  spot,  during  the  existence  of  such  count- 
less millions ;  and  yet  the  present  race  have  continued  to 
increase,  we  suppose,  for  more  than  four  thousand  years. 
If  there  was  no  catastrophe  which  destroyed  the  great 
body  of  mankind,  and  had  they  continued  to  increase  from 
the  creation,  is  there  not  every  reason  to  believe,  nay,  is  it 
not  quite  certain,  that  their  numbers  would  have  been  vast- 
ly more  numerous  than  they  actually  are  ? 

Pretended  Antiquity  of  some  Nations.  It  has  been 
said,  that  several  nations  could  trace  their  antiquity  to  pe- 
riods before  the  historical  date  of  the  deluge.  These  pre- 
tensions, when  carefully  examined,  have  been  found,  in 
every  instance,  to  be  entirely  groundless. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  Hindoos  claim  the  highest  an- 
tiquity for  their  nation  and  their  learning.  Sir  William 
Jones,  who  examined  the  authorities  on  which  these  high 
claims  were  founded,  became  convinced,  that  such  preten- 
sions were  without  the  least  foundation  in  truth.  "  We 
find,"  says  that  eminent  scholar,  "  no  certain  monuments, 
or  even  probable  tradition,  (among  these  people,)  of  na- 
tions planted ;  empires  and  states  raised ;  laws  enacted  ;  cit- 
ies built;  navigation  improved;  commerce  encouraged; 
arts  invented ;  or  letters  contrived,  above  twelve,  or  at 
most,  fifteen  or  sixteen  centuries  before  the  birth  of 
Christ."  Indeed,  it  is  known  from  the  researches  of  those 
who  have  made  the  literature  and  antiquities  of  that  nation 
a  subject  of  study,  that  they  possess  no  authentic  history 
which  dates  anterior  to  the  third  or  fourth  century  of  our 
era. 

There  is  a  popular  opinion  that  the  Chinese  are  able  to 
trace  the  history  of  their  nation  to  a  very  remote  antiqui- 
ty ;  and  yet,  on  examination,  they  do  not  pretend  to  pos- 
sess any  knowledge  of  their  own  nation,  anterior  to  the 
eleventh  century  before  the  Christian  era,  and  even  this 
is  probably,  almost,  if  not  entirely  fabulous. 

We  shall  notice  further  on  this  point,  that  the  preten- 
sions which  the  Egyptians  have  made  to  the  great  antiqui- 
.y  of  their  nation,  appear  to  have  been  founded  on  their 
mode  of  reckoning  time,  by  which  a  year  consisted  of  a 
lunar  month,  or  thirty  days,  instead  of  365  days ;  and  that 
the  claims  of  the  Chaldeans  to  profound  science  and  re- 
mote antiquity,  are  equally  unfounded.  According  to  Be- 
rosus,  they  knew  so  little  of  Astronomy,  the  oldest  of  th« 


94  THE    DELUGE. 

sciences,  as  to  consider  the  moon  a  luminous  body,  which 
sheds  its  own  light,  instead  of  borrowing  it  from  the  sun. 
In  fine,  so  far  as  examination  has  been  made,  the  his- 
tory, the  arts,  the  antiquities,  and  the  languages  of  all  na- 
tions, concur  to  prove  the  comparatively  recent  origin  of 
the  present  races  of  men. 

Tradition  proves  the  Mosaic  account  of  the  Deluge. 
A  tradition  of  the  deluge,  in  many  instances  very  nearly 
coinciding  with  the  account  given  of  that  catastrophe  by 
Moses,  has  been  almost  universally  preserved  among  the 
ancient  nations.  It  is  indeed  a  very  remarkable  fact  con- 
cerning that  event,  that  the  memory,  or  traditions  of  most 
nations  ends  with  some  traces  of  its  history,  however  im- 
perfect. This  is  even  the  case  with  several  of  the  nations 
recently  discovered,  and  before  unknown  to  the  civilized 
world,  and  which  therefore  could  not  have  derived  this 
tradition  from  the  history  of  Moses,  or  from  the  commu- 
nication of  travellers. 

Without  reciting,  in  detail,  the  abundant  proof  which 
authors  contain  on  this  subject,  we  must  content  ourselves 
by  adverting  to  a  few  of  these  traditions. 

Josephus  affirms  that  Berosus,  the  Chaldean  historian, 
has  related  the  circumstances-of  a  great  deluge,  in  which 
all  mankind  perished  except  a  few,  and  that  Noachus,  the 
preserver  of  the  human  race,  was  carried  in  an  ark  to  the 
summit  of  an  Armenian  mountain.  Josephus  also  testi- 
fies that  Hieronirnus,  the  Egyptian  historian,  who  wrote 
the  antiquities  of  the  Phoenicians,  and  Nicholas  of  Da- 
mascus, together  with  other  writers,  in  common  with  Be- 
rosus, speak  of  this  same  deluge.  Likewise  there  is  a 
fragment  preserved  of  Abydemus,  an  ancient  Assyrian 
historian,  in  which  it  is  said,  not  only  that  there  was  a 
deluge,  but  that  it  was  foretold  before  it  happened,  and 
that  birds  were  sent  forth  from  the  ark  three  different 
times  to  see  whether  the  waters  had  abated.  This  frag- 
ment also  states  that  the  ark  was  driven  to  Armenia.  It 
is  hardly  necessary  to  observe  how  nearly  these  accounts 
agree  with  that  of  Moses,  and  yet  it  is  by  no  means  sup- 
posed, that  they  were  derived  from  the  sacred  writings, 
but  from  the  traditions  of  the  nations  among  whom  these 
historians  resided. 

Among  the  Greeks,  Plato  mentions  the  great  deluge- 
in  which  cities  were  destroyed,  and  the  useful  arts  lost 


THE  DELUGE.  95 

And  Diodorus  affirms  that  there  was  a  tradition  among 
the  Egyptians,  that  almost  all  animals  perished  by  a  gen- 
eral deluge,  which  happened  in  Deucalion's  time. 

Now  commentators  and  scholars  inform  us,  that  Deuca- 
lion's flood,  and  that  of  Noah's  are  the  same.  Plutarch,  in 
his  account  of  the  sagacity  of  animals  says,  that  a  dove 
was  sent  out  by  Deucalion,  which  coming  back  to  the  ark 
again,  was  a  sign  that  the  flood  continued,  but  afterwards 
flying  away,  proved  that  there  was  dry  land. 

Lucian  mentions  Deucalion's  flood,  and  states  that  only 
a  remnant  of  the  human  family  was  saved  from  its  effects. 
He  also  says  that  the  present  race  of  man  was  not  the  first, 
but  that  all  were  destroyed,  except  Deucalion  and  his  fam- 
ily, and  that  this  destruction  was  caused  by  the  wickedness 
of  man. 

Many  more  examples  of  a  similar  kind  are  noted  by  au- 
thors, but  we  shall  only  mention  that  traditions  of  the 
flood,  more  or  less  mixed  with  fable,  are  retained  by  the 
Hindoos,  Burmans,  and  Chinese.  The  tradition  of  the 
latter  refers  not  only  directly  to  the  deluge  itself,  but  also 
to  the  cause  of  it,  viz.,  the  wickedness  of  man.  Similar 
traditions  are  also  traced  among  the  ancient  Goths  and 
Druids,  as  well  as  among  the  recent  Mexicans,  Brazilians, 
and  Nicaraguans  ;  to  which  may  be  added  the  newly  dis- 
covered people  of  Western  Caledonia,  the  Otaheitans,  be- 
fore their  conversion  to  Christianity  and  the  Sandwich  Isl- 
anders. See  Bishop  Newton's  works,  and  Home's  Intro- 
duction, vol.  i. 

From  these  various  facts  it  is  manifest,  that  the  heathen 
were  not  only  acquainted  by  tradition  with  the  fact  of  a 
universal  deluge,  but  also  with  many  of  its  circumstances, 
and  that  these  traditions  often  bear  a  striking  analogy  to 
the  account  given  by  Moses. 

In  closing  this  part  of  our  subject,  we  may  remark,  that 
few  facts  stated  in  history,  can  bring  to  its  support  so  much 
concurrent  testimony,  as  that  of  a  universal  deluge.  The 
face  of  the  earth  almost  everywhere  records  its  effects, 
and  often  in  the  most  eloquent  and  striking  manner,  so 
that  the  rocks  themselves  are  everlasting  witnesses  against 
the  folly  of  unbelievers.  Profane  history  is  not  silent  on 
this  subject,  but  brings  forward  her  testfmony  in  quantity- 
more  than  sufficient  to  establish  an  ordinary  fact.  Tradi- 
tion, though  blunted  by  fable,  clearly  testifies  to  the  same 
truth.  And,  lastly,  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  written  by  th« 


96  THE  DELUGE. 

express  command  of  Divine  authority,  have  not  only  de- 
scribed, in  the  most  simple  and  lucid  terms,  this  awful  ca- 
tastrophe, but  have  explained  the  reason  why  such  a  ca- 
lamity was  brought  upon  our  race 

The  Ark  of  Noah.  It  has  been  objected  against  the 
Mosaic  history,  with  confidence,  and  undoubtedly  often 
with  considerable  effect,  that  it  is  very  improbable,  Noah, 
at  that  period  of  the  arts,  could  have  constructed  an  ark  of 
sufficient  capacity  to  contain  specimens  of  all  the  animals 
on  the  earth,  together  with  his  own  family,  and  such  a 
quantity  of  provisions  as  to  sustain  the  whole  for  the  term 
of  150  days.  But  this  objection  will  instantly  vanish  when 
the  dimensions  of  this  vessel  are  considered. 

The  dimensions  of  Noah's  ark  were  three  hundred  cu- 
bits in  length,  fifty  in  breadth,  and  thirty  in  height,  and 
consisted  of  three  decks,  stories,  or  floors.  Reckoning  the 
cubit  at  a  foot  and  a  half,  or  eighteen  inches,  Dr.  Hales 
has  proved  that  the  ark  was  of  the  burden  of  42,413  tons, 
as  we  compute  the  tonnage  of  ships  at  the  present  day. 
A  first  rate  man  of  war  is  between  2,200  and  2,300  tons, 
and  consequently  the  ark  had  a  capacity  of  stowage  equal 
to  eighteen  such  ships,  the  largest  now  in  use.  It  might 
therefore  have  carried  20,000  men  with  provisions  for  six 
months,  besides  the  weight  of  1,800  cannon,  and  other  ne- 
cessary equipments  and  military  stores  for  such  an  arma- 
ment. Can  it  be  doubtful,  therefore,  whether  this  vessel 
had  sufficient  capacity  to  contain  eight  persons,  and  about 
200  or  250  pairs  of  four  footed  beasts,  a  number,  to  which, 
according  to  Buffon,  all  the  various  distinct  species  may 
be  reduced,  together  with  pairs  of  such  fowls,  reptiles,  and 
creeping  things,  as  cannot  live  under  water,  and  provisions 
for  the  whole,  even  for  a  year.* 

Was  the  Deluge   Universal?     We  have  stated  at  the 


*  Dr.  Hale's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  i.,  p.  328.  The  reader 
who  desires  to  pursue  this  subject,  will  find  a  good  summary  in 
Home's  Introduction  to  the  Critical  study  of  the  Scriptures,  vol.  i. 
But  the  books  which  treat  the  subject  more  at  large,  and  in  con- 
nexion with  Geology,  are  Howard's  History  of  the  Earth  and  Man, 
4to.  Buckland's  Reliquiae  Diluvianae.  Cuvier's  Theory  of  the 
Earth.  Ure's  New  System  of  Geology,  and  Penn's  Comparative 
Estimate  of  the  Mineral  and  Mosaical  Geologies. 


THE    DELUGE.  97 

beginning  of  this  article  that  an  objection  had  been  raised 
against  the  truth  of  the  Mosaic  history,  on  account  of  there 
not  being  supposed  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  now  on 
the  earth,  to  cover  the  mountains  as  there  represented.  At 
the  epoch  of  the  creation,  the  whole  earth  was  surrounded 
\vith  water,  otherwise  there  is  no  meaning  in  the  com- 
mand, "  Let  the  waters  under  the  heavens  be  gathered 
together  unto  one  place,  and  let  the  dry  land  appear."  If 
it  be  objected  that  this  was  before  the  elevation  of  the  hills 
and  mountains,  and  that  the  earth  at  that  time  was  a 
smooth  ball,  and  therefore  might  be  entirely  covered  by  a 
thin  stratum  of  water,  it  requiring  much  less  to  cover  a 
smooth,  than  an  uneven  surface,  still,  until  it  can  be  shown 
to  what  depth  the  earth  was  then  covered,  it  cannot  be 
proved  that  there  was  not  a  sufficient  quantity  to  cover 
the  mountains  as  they  now  exist.  As  there  have  been  no 
new  creations,  the  quantity  of  water  now  existing,  is  un- 
doubtedly the  same  that  it  was  when  it  surrounded  the 
whole  earth.  It  is  now  chiefly  collected  into  one  continu- 
ous ocean,  the  depth  of  Avhich  is  in  general  entirely  un- 
known. Calculations,  it  is  true,  have  been  made,  on  the 
quantity  of  water  the  oceans,  seas,  and  lakes  contain,  with 
a  view  of  estimating  the  aggregate  amount  on  the  earth. 
But  it  is  obvious,  that  not  even  an  approximation  to  the 
truth  can  be  offered  en  this  subject,  until  more  is  known 
concerning  the  depths  of  the  different  oceans,  than  at 
present.  Besides,  it  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  that  all 
the  mountains  were  covered  on  the  same  day,  or  even- 
week,  for  the  deluge  might  have  swept  the  earth  from  one 
country  to  another,  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  great  tides 
of  the  present  day.  The  only  difficulty  in  the  way  of 
such  a  hypothesis,  is  the  length  of  time  which  the  moun- 
tains continued  covered  where  the  ark  rested.  But  as 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  eastern  portion 
of  the  globe  was  the  only  one  then  inhabited,  and  as  the 
deluge  was  a  punitive  measure,  brought  on  by  the  wick- 
edness and  violence  of  man,  we  may  reasonably  suppose 
that  it  began  first,  and  continued  longest  in  the  countries 
where  he  dwelt.  Perhaps  the  "  windows  of  heaven" 
were  opened  only  over  that  devoted  portion  of  the  earth, 
and  from  thence  the  flood  swept  in  all  directions  to  other 
parts.  It  is  certain  that  all  parts  of  the  earth  which  have 
been  examined,  contain  monuments  of  a  sweeping  deluge ; 
i  nd  that  the  mountains  in  various  countries  were  covered 
9 


98  THE    DELUGE. 

by  it,  is  proved  not  only  by  the  removal  of  great  masses  of 
rock  from  their  places,  but  also  by  the  organic  remains 
of  quadrupeds  and  fish,  found  buried  at  great  heights 
above  the  sea,  and  under  such  circumstances  as  to  show 
that  they  were  deposited  there  by  water. 

It  is  not  however  supposed  that  in  every  instance  where 
such  remains  are  found  far  above  the  sea,  they  were  de- 
posited by  the  deluge,  as  it  will  be  seen  in  another  place, 
that  limestone,  and  other  strata  containing  shells,  have 
been  elevated  by  subterranean  forces. 

The  universality  of  the  deluge  is  sufficiently  proved, 
therefore,  by  the  appearance  of  the  earth,  and  that  it  cov- 
ered the  mountains,  at  least  many  of  them,  there  is  good 
reason  to  believe,  independently  of  the  assertions  of  Scrip- 
ture, though  the  physical  evidence  on  this  point  is  per- 
haps not  conclusive. 

Were  all  the  animals  existing  in  the  primitive  world 
preserved  in  the  ark  ?  It  is  certain  that  there  once  existed 
quadrupeds  on  the  earth,  which  are  unknown  at  the  pre- 
sent time,  and  which  it  is  nearly  as  certain  do  not  any- 
where exist.  The  remains  of  these  extinct  specif  s,  as  we 
have  already  shown,  are  found  in  almost  every  parf.  of  the 
world.  Did  these  races  perish  at  the  time  of  the  deluge, 
or  did  they  gradually  become  extinct,  before  or  since,  that 
catastrophe  ? 

Many  fossil  bones  are  in  such  a  slate  of  preservation,  as 
to  prove  that  their  races  were  in  existence  at  no  very  re- 
mote period.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  cold  climates, 
as  in  Siberia,  where  the  tusks  of  elephants  are  undfcayed. 
Still,  time  produces  the  decomposition  and  total  destruc- 
tion of  all  organized  substances,  when  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere,  or  buried  in  the  ground,  and  among  the  Sibe- 
rian bones,  there  are  some  which  show  its  effects  much 
more  than  others.  These,  therefore,  we  may  suppose, 
other  circumstances  being  equal,  are  the  most  ancient. 
But  in  general,  the  Siberian  bones  of  quadrupeds,  as  well 
as  those  found  in  other  countries,  and  attributed  to  the 
flood,  appear  to  be  of  about  the  same  antiquity,  and  be- 
sides, these  remains,  or  those  of  similar  species,  wherever 
found,  appear  to  have  been  buried  under  similar  circum- 
stances. The  kind  of  deposite  in  which  they  are  found  is 
eyerywhere  similar,  and  apparently  of  the  same  age,  and 
hence  geologists  have  generally  come  to  similar  conclu- 


THE    DELUGE.  99 

sions  with  respect  to  their  antiquity,  and  the  manner  in 
which  thfe  animals  Avere  destroyed.  A  sudden,  violent, 
and  general  catastrophe,  appears  to  have  destroyed  these 
ancient  races,  and  at  the  same  time,  to  have  buried  them 
in  its  effects.  The  deposites  in  which  the  bones  are  in- 
terred, are  what  geologists  term  diluvial,  that  is,  belong- 
ing to  the  deluge.  This  is  the  latest  formation,  with  the 
exception  of  the  alluvial,  which  is  constantly  deposited  at 
the  present  time. 

Taking  these  circumstances  in  connexion,  it  is  thought 
that  there  are  sufficient  reasons  to  conclude,  that  the  lost 
species  of  quadrupeds  became  totally  extinct  at  the  epoch 
of  the  general  deluge,  the  history  of  which  is  given  by 
Moses,  and  that  they  perished  by  the  same  catastrophe 
which  destroyed  every  individual  of  the  human  race,  ex- 
cept Noah  and  his  family. 

A  comparison  of  the  bones  of  the  fossil  species,  with 
those  of  present  ones,  show  that  they  generally  were  of  a 
different  species.  Hence  we  must  come  to  the  conclusion, 
that  not  all,  or  every  species  of  quadrupeds  existing  before 
the  deluge,  were  preserved  in  the  ark,  but  that  many  races 
perished  by  its  waters. 

The  divine  command  to  Noah,  that  he  should  take  into 
the  ark  "  of  every  living  thing,  of  all  flesh,  two  of  every 
sort,"  must  therefore  be  understood  as  a  universal  term, 
with  a  Limited  signification,  as  is  often  the  case  in  scrip- 
ture language,  and  particularly  with  respect  to  the  word 
which  we  translate  all.  Thus  Dr.  Hammond,  in  his  note 
on  Cor.  i.  1 3,  says  that  this  word  is  not  always  to  be  taken 
in  its  utmost  extent ;  "  but  according  to  the  use  in  like 
phrases,  in  all  languages,  Avherein  the  universal  sign, 
affixed,  either  to  persons,  or  times,  or  places,  or  things, 
signifies  only  a  greater  number,  but  not  all,  without  ex- 
ception." 

In  like  manner,  Schleusner  observes  that  the  word  all, 
every,  in  scripture,  is  often  employed  indefinitely,  to  sig- 
nify various — of  different  kinds ;  and  often,  also,  to  denote 
many,  a  great  number. 

In  the  narrative  of  the  deluge,  this  word  is  repeatedly 
employed  in  this  indefinite  manner.  Thus,  Gen.  vi.  17, 
"  And  behold  I,  even  I,  do  bring  a  flood  of  waters  upon 
the  earth,  to  destroy  all  flesh  wherein  is  the  breath  of  life, 
from  under  heaven."  And  in  another  verse,  li  for  all  flesh 
had  corrupted  his  way  upon  the  earth."  Now  it  does  not 


100  VOLCANOES    AND    EARTHQUAKES. 

appear  that  it  was  the  intention  of  the  Almighty,  literally 
to  destroy  all  flesh,  since  Noah  and  his  family",  together 
with  the  animals  \vhich  he  took  into  the  ark,  were  saved ; 
nor  does  it  appear  that  every  individual  had  corrupted  his 
way,  for  "  Noah  found  grace  in  the  eyes  of  the  Lord." 

Precisely  similar  language  is  used  with  respect  to  the 
animals  to  be  taken  into  the  ark.  Thus,  verse  1 9,  "  And 
every  living  thing,  of  all  flesh,  two  of  every  sort  shalt  thou 
bring  into  the  ark."  Now  no  one  will  contend  that  the 
fish  of  the  sea  were  intended  to  be  included  in  this  com- 
mand, and  yet  the  terms  employed  "  every  living  thing," 
would  include  these,  equally  with  terrestrial  animals. 

The  terms  of  the  Mosaic  history,  therefore,  give  us  lib- 
erty to  conclude,  that  all  the  antediluvian  species,  without 
exception,  were  not  admitted  into  the  ark  ;  and  consequent- 
ly, we  may  consider  the  extinct  species,  whose  bones  are 
found  in  the  earth,  as  exceptions  to  the  general  terms  of  the 
divine  command,  without  the  least  violation  of  the  intended 
meaning  of  the  sacred  scriptures. 

The  more  ancient  bones,  or  those  of  the  same  species 
which  are  more  decayed  than  others,  we  may  suppose  be- 
longed to  animals  which  died  natural  deaths,  before  the 
time  of  the  catastrophe  which  destroyed  the  remainder  of 
the  "race ;  while  those  in  a  similar  state  of  preservation, 
and  found  under  similar  circumstances,  may  be  considered 
as  having  belonged  to  animals  which  perished  by  the  same 
catastrophe. 


VOLCANOES    AND    EARTHQUAKES. 

Having,  in  the  preceding  pages,  given  such  a  history 
of  the  changes  produced  by  water,  as  our  limits  would 
allow,  we  now  come  to  those  which  have  been  produced 
by  .fire,  as  the  great  cause  of  volcanic  phenomena,  the 
most  tremendous  and  startling  exhibitions,  of  which  the 
experience  of  man  can  conceive. 

The  effects  of  water,  in  changing  the  form  of  the  earth, 
we  have  seen,  are,  with  a  few  exceptions,  gradual,  and 
sometimes  so  slow,  as  even  to  require  centuries  to  pro- 
duce any  considerable  results.  The  changes  produced  by 
earthquakes,  on  the  contrary,  are  often  as  sudden  as 
they  are  calamitous  and  fearful,  sometimes  in  a  single 


VOLCANOES    AND    EARTHQUAKES.  101 

hour,  or  even  in  a  moment,  not  only  reducing  to  frag- 
ments the  most  solid  and  costly  monuments  of  man,  but 
also  mutilating  the  face  of  the  earth  itself — tearing  down 
mountains — elevating  islands  in  the  depths  of  the  ocean, 
or  burying  whole  territories  under  inundations  of  liquid 
fire. 

Geography  of  Volcanoes.  It  is  a  striking  circumstance, 
in  the  history  of  volcanoes  and  earthquakes,  that  these 
awful  exhibitions  of  nature  have  hitherto  been  almost  en- 
tirely confined  to  certain  regions  of  country.  At  present 
the  Andes  of  South  America  are  among  the  best  defined 
of  these  regions.  Beginning  with  Chili,  in  the  46°  of  south 
latitude,  and  proceeding  north  to  the  27°  of  the  same  lati- 
tude, we  shall  find  a  line  of  volcanoes  so  uninterrupted, 
that  hardly  a  degree  is  passed  without  the  occurrence  of 
one  of  these  agents  in  an  active  state.  About  twenty  arc 
enumerated  within  that  space,  and  there  is  no  doubt  but 
many  more  exist,  some  of  which  are  dormant,  and  per- 
haps some  have  become  extinct.  How  long  an  interval 
of  rest  entitles  a  volcano  to  be  considered  as  extinct,  is  not 
determined.  Those  which  have  always  been  inactive 
since  the  era  of  history,  may  perhaps  be  so  considered. 
The  volcano  of  Ischia,  in  Italy,  was  silent  for  a  term  of 
1700  years,  after  which  it  again  commenced  a  series  of 
eruptions. 

The  volcanoes  of  Chili  have  their  chimneys  pierced 
through  mountains  of  granite,  thus  exhibiting  the  effects 
of  a  degree  offeree,  of  which  man,  without  the  existence 
of  such  phenomena,  could  have  nowhere  gained  the  least 
conception.  Villarcia  is  one  of  the  principal  volcanoes  of 
this  district.  It  is  so  elevated  as  to  be  visible  at  the  dis- 
tance of  150  miles,  and  burns  without  intermission.  Every 
year  the  inhabitants  of  this  province  experience  shocks  of 
earthquakes.  In  1822,  the  whole  coast  of  Chili,  to  the 
extent  of  100  miles,  was  elevated  several  feet  by  a  sub- 
terranean convulsion,  of  which  we  shall  give  an  account 
hereafter. 

Proceeding  to  the  north,  where  the  Andes  attain  their 
greatest  elevation,  we  find  in  the  province  of  Quito,  Co- 
topaxi,  Antisana,  and  Pichinca,  all  of  them  in  an  active 
state,  and  frequently  emitting  flames.  Tunguragua,  is 
also  in  the  same  district.  This  mountain,  in  1797,  threw 
out  a  deluge  of  mud,  which  filled  valleys  a  thousand  feet 
9* 


102  VOLCANOES    AND    EARTHQUAKES. 

wide,  and  six  hundred  deep,  forming  barriers  by  which 
rivers  were  dammed  up  and  lakes  formed.  North  of  Q,uito, 
in  the  provinces  of  Pasto  and  Popyan,  occur  six  other 
volcanoes ;  and  in  the  provinces  of  Guatimala  and  Nica- 
ragua, which  lie  between  the  isthmus  of  Panama  and 
Mexico,  there  are  no  less  than  twenty-three  volcanic 
mountains,  all  of  them  situated  between  the  10°  and  15° 
of  north  latitude,  some  of  which  are  constantly  in  an  ac- 
tive state. 

This  great  volcanic  chain,  after  being  thus  extended 
from  south  to  north,  nearly  in  a  direct  line,  is  continued 
through  a  great  part  of  Mexico  from  west  to  east.  Here 
are  five  active  volcanoes,  known  by  the  several  names  of 
Tuxtla,  Oribaza,  Popocatepest,  Jorullo  and  Colima.  Still 
north  of  Mexico,  in  the  peninsula  of  California,  there  are 
at  least  three,  and  according  to  some,  five  burning  moun- 
tains. 

Thus  we  see  that  this  volcanic  chain  extends  nearly  in 
an  uninterrupted  course  from  Chili  to  the  north  of  Mexico, 
a  distance  of  nearly  4000  miles. 

Another  continuous  volcanic,  range,  of  nearly  equal 
extent,  begins  at  the  Aleutian  Islands,  belonging  to  Rus- 
sian America,  and  by  a  circuitous  route,  ptisses  to  the 
Molucca  Islands.  Through  this  whole  extent,  earthquakes 
of  the  most  terrific  description  are  common. 

But  our  limits  will  not  permit  the  enumeration  of  all  the 
volcanic  tracts  described  by  authors.  Besides  those  al- 
ready mentioned,  Kamtschatka  has  seven  burning  moun- 
tains ;  the  island  of  Java  contains  thirty-eight  great  vol- 
canoes ;  the  Molucca  Islands  contain  several,  and  among 
them  that  of  Sumbawa,  which,  in  1815,  suffered  one  of 
the  most  tremendous  eruptions  recorded  in  history.  The 
Islands  of  Jesso  and  Niphon,  and  Sumatra,  contain  more 
or  less  volcanoes ;  and  from  the  Caspian  sea  to  the 
Azores,  is  a  volcanic  range.  Of  Sicily  and  Italy,  it  is 
hardly  necessary  to  speak  in  this  enumeration,  since  the 
descriptions  of  Etna  and  Vesuvius,  of  Herculaneum  and 
Pompeii,  are  well  known,  and  are  sufficient  to  indicate  the 
volcanic  disposition  of  that  part  of  Europe.  The  West 
India  Islands  have  occasionally  suffered  great  calamities 
from  this  cause;  and  Iceland  contains  many  burning 
mountains,  among  which  is  Skaptar  Jokul,  which,  in  1783, 
suffered  an  extraordinary  eruption,  which  we  shall  de- 
scribe. 


VOLCANIC    ERUPTIONS.  103 

The  whole  number  of  volcanoes  known  is  about  200. 
See  Von  Hojfs  Geology,  vol.  ii,  and  LyelVs  Geology,  vol.  i. 
Article  '•  Geography  of  Volcanic  Regions." 

General  Characters  and  Geological  Connexions  of  Vol- 
canoes. The  forms  of  volcanic  mountains  are  generally 
so  peculiar  as  to  be  distinguished  from  all  others.  They 
are  commonly  of  considerable  height,  and  sometimes  very 
lofty.  When  solitary,  they  are  of  a  conical  form,  and 
more  or  less  truncated,  that  is,  bearing  the  appearance  of 
having  been  cut  off  at  the  top.  When  active,  or  but  re- 
cently extinguished,  the  truncation  has  within  it  a  cavity 
tf  greater  or  less  size,  called  the  crater. 

The  accurate  form  of  a  perfect  crater  is  an  inverted  co- 
noid, and  on  Cotopaxi  and  TenerirTe,  they  are  surrounded 
by  Avails  of  lava,  but  most  commonly  this  part  is  composed 
of  ashes  Avhich  have  fallen  doAvn  during  eruptions.  The 
size  of  the  crater  does  not  necessarily  bear  any  proportion 
to  that  of  the  mountain.  In  some  mountains  both  the  size 
and  shape  varies  Avith  every  eruption. 

Proximity  of  Volcanoes  to  the  Sea.  In  nearly  all  in- 
stances, volcanoes  are  seated  near  the  sea,  or  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  a  large  body  of  Avater,  and  it  Avas  formerly 
thought  that  proximity  to  the  AArater,  was  absolutely  ne- 
cessary to  their  action  ;  nor  is  it  certain  that  this  is  not 
the  case.  The  only  exception  to  this  general  fact,  is  Jo- 
rulio,  one  of  the  burning  mountains  of  the  Andes,  Avhich 
is  situated  more  than  a  hundred  miles  from  the  ocean,  nor 
does  it  appear  that  any  considerable  body  of  AA'ater  is  near 
it.  It  ha?,  ho\veArer,  been  suggested,  from  some  circum- 
stances observed  with  respect  to  this  mountain,  that  it  may 
possibly  communicate  Avith  the  sea  by  a  deep  fissure. 

In  many  instances,  volcanoes  have  thrown  out  mud  or 
AA'ater,  instead  of  lava,  and  ashes;  and  in  some  instances, 
fish  of  A^arious  kinds  have  been  found  in  the  water  thus 
emitted,  though  no  previous  suspicion  had  existed,  of  a 
communication  betAveen  the  mountain  and  the  sea. 


VOLCANIC    ERUPTIONS. 

The  action  of  most  volcanoes  is  periodical,  or  inter- 
mitting, though  this  is  not  the  case  with  all.     Vesuviut 


104  VOLCANIC    ERUPTIONS. 

and  /Etna  are  sometimes  dormant  for  a  series  of  years,  but 
Stromboli,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  former,  has  been  constant- 
ly burning,  ever  since  two  hundred  and  ninety-two  years 
before  the  Christian  era,  being  upAvards  of  two  thousand 
years.  Jorullo  has  continued  to  emit  flames  ever  since 
1759,  at  which  time  it  was  elevated  from  the  plain  on 
which  it  stands.  But  Vulcano  suffered  no  eruption  for 
eleven  centuries,  and  we  have  already  noticed  that  Ischia 
lay  dormant  for  seventeen  hundred  years. 

The  appearances  which  attend  volcanic  eruptions,  are 
various.  In  some  instances,  flames  issue  suddenly  and 
silently  from  the  cone,  affording  only  splendid  picturesque 
phenomena.  But  in  others,  the  scene  is  the  most  terrific 
and  appalling  of  which  the  imagination  can  conceive.  For 
these  descriptions  we  must,  however,  refer  to  particular 
eruptions,  an  account  of  which  will  follow. 

The  eruptions  of  Vesuvius  and  ^Etna,  these  mountains 
being  in  the  midst  of  a  highly  cultivated  people,  are  best 
described.  Indeed,  from  the  time  of  Pliny,  to  the  present 
day,  these  have  been  the  subjects  of  interesting  and  learned 
dissertations. 

In  general,  the  first  appearance  of  an  eruption  consists 
in  a  column  of  smoke  rising  to  a  great  height,  and  then 
spreading  out  in  the  form  which  Pliny  compared  to  that 
of  a  pine  tree.  This  is  followed  by  explosions  from  the 
craters;  by  trembling  of  the  earth,  or  perhaps  by  its  alter- 
nate rising  and  falling ;  the  whole  being  attended  by  a 
rumbling,  subterranean  sound,  forming  both  an  eruption 
and  an  earthquake.  Flame  is  then  seen  to  issue  from  the 
cone,  attended  by  red  hot  stones,  often  thrown  to  the 
height  of  several  hundred  feet,  producing  in  the  night, 
those  brilliant  and  terrific  phenomena,  so  often  described. 
During  the  emission  of  the  black  smoke,  and  before  the 
flame  issues,  there  are  often  the  most  vivid  flashes  of 
lightning,  which  add  greatly  to  the  splendor  of  the  scene. 
After  these  phenomena  have  existed  for  a  longer  or  a 
shorter  time,  the  melted  lava,  rising  to  the  edge  of  the  cra- 
ter, flows  over  it,  and  runs  down  the  side  of  the  mountain 
into  the  plain  below.  This  is  in  the  form  of  a  torrent  of 
liquid  fire,  often  narrow,  but  sometimes  many  miles  in 
width.  It  sometimes  proceeds  rapidly,  but  more  often 
slowly,  the  last  portions  of  lava  passing  over  the  first,  in 
small  cascades.  Sometimes,  or  from  some  mountains, 
there  is  much  smoke,  and  but  little  lava ;  while  from  oth- 


PARTICULAR    ERUPTIONS.  105 

ers,  or  at  other  times,  the  crater  vomits  rivers  of  melted 
matter,  without  srnoke  or  flame. 

The  eruption  of  lava  is  often  followed  by  showers  of 
ashes,  which  consist  of  finely  divided  particles  of  lava,  and 
which  are  often  wafted  by  the  wind,  to  the  distance  of  seve- 
ral hundred  miles. 

The  quantity  of  matter  ejected  by  some  volcanoes,  is 
astonishingly  great.  Brieslak,  an  Italian  geologist,  calcu- 
lated that  the  quantity  of  lava  which  flowed  from  a  volcano 
in  the  island  of  Bourbon,  in  1796,  amounted  to  45,000,000 
of  cubic  feet;  and  that  the  quantity  from  the  same,  in  1787, 
was  60,000,000  of  cubic  feet;  and  during  one  eruption 
from  a  mountain  in  Iceland,  the  lava  flowed  about  ninety 
miles,  having  a  width  of  at  least  twenty  miles,  and  in  some 
plices,  a  depth  of  several  hundred  feet. 


PARTICULAR    ERUPTIONS. 


We  shall  describe  a  few  volcanic  eruptions,  selecting 
only  those  which  have  been  the  subject  of  peculiar,  or  sci- 
entific interest,  or  which  have  produced  extraordinary  ef- 
fects, either  with  respect  to  the  destruction  they  have  caused, 
or  the  quantity  of  lava  they  have  ejected. 

Eruptions  of  Vesuvius.  The  most  ancient  eruption  of 
this  Italian  mountain,  of  which  there  is  any  particular  de- 
scription, was  in  A.  D.  79,  at  which  time  the  cities  of  Her- 
culaneum  and  Pompeii  were  destroyed.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear that  any  lava,  or  melted  matter  was  emitted  at  this 
eruption;  the  ejected  substances  being  sand,  ashes,  and 
mud.  But  it  is  certain  that  this  mountain  had  previously 
emitted  lava,  since  the  streets  of  these  cities  are  paved  with 
this  substance.  The  first  stream  of  lava,  of  which  there 
is  any  account,  was  in  1036,  being  the  sixth  or  seventh 
eruption  on  record.  From  this  period,  all  the  eruptions 
which  have  taken  place,  are  recorded,  and  many  of  them 
described  by  scientific  men,  and  at  great  length. 

Some  of  them  produced  considerable  changes,  not  only 
in  the  form  and  appearance  of  the  mountain  itself,  but  also 
of  the  country  in  the  vicinity.  That  of  1538,  elevated 
the  land  along  the  coast  of  Naples  many  feet,  destroyed 
many  villages,  and  produced  Monte  Nuovo,  which  is  still 


106  PARTICULAR    ERUPTIONS. 

440  feet  in  height.  A  description  and  figure  of  this  moun- 
tain will  be  given  hereafter. 

From  about  the  end  of  the  18th  century  to  1822,  the 
great  crater  of  Vesuvius  had  been  filling  up  gradually, 
with  lava  which  boiled  up  from  below,  so  that  the  bottom 
of  the  cavity  presented  a  kind  of  rocky  plain  covered  with 
blocks,  crags,  and  hillocks  of  volcanic  matter.  But  dur- 
ing the  latter  year,  in  the  month  of  October,  the  form  and 
appearance  of  the  ancient  crater  was  entirely  changed. 
The  explosions  at  that  time  were  so  violent  during  twenty 
days,  as  to  break  up,  and  throw  out  the  whole  of  that  ac- 
cumulated mass,  leaving  an  immense  gulf,  or  chasm,  about 
three  miles  in  circumference,  and  in  some  parts  2000  feet 
deep.  At  the  same  time  about  800  feet  in  height,  of  the 
original  cone  or  top  of  the  ancient  crater,  was  carried 
away  by  the  explosions,  so  that  Vesuvius  became  reduced 
in  height  from  about  4200  to  3400  feet. — Forbes  in  Ed. 
Journal,  and  Scrape  in  Jour,  of  Science. 

In  ascending  the  mountain,  its  sloping  sides  are  found 
to  be  covered  with  loose  materials  intermixed  with  each 
other  without  the  slighest  order,  and  just  as  they  fell  from 
the  crater.  But  on  arriving  at  the  crater  itself,  the  be- 
holder is  surprised  to  find  that  every  thing  is  there  arranged 
in  the  most  perfect  symmetry,  and  that  the  materials  are 
disposed  in  regular  undulating  strata.  These  consist  of 
alternate  layers,  composed  of  lava,  sand,  ashes,  and  scoria, 
lying  in  distinct  beds,  and  alternating  with  each  other. 
These  have  resulted  from  the  different  colors,  and  coarse- 
ness of  these  materials,  and  which  severally  remain  in  the 
same  situation  and  succession  as  they  fell  from  the  air  dur- 
ing the  different  eruptions. 

In  some  parts  of  the  crater,  are  seen  dykes,  or  veins  of 
more  compact  matter  intersecting  the  above  described  strata. 
These  are  on  the  outside  of  the  cone,  and  being  harder 
than  the  volcanic  matter  through  which  they  have  passed, 
they  have  resisted  decomposition,  and  therefore  project 
above  the  surface. 

These  have  undoubtedly  been  formed  by  the  filling  up 
of  open  fissures  with  liquid  matter  forced  up  from  below. 
At  what  period  they  were  formed  is  unknown,  but  if  such 
fissures  are  formed  by  the  cooling,  and  consequent  shrink- 
ing of  the  crater,  after  an  eruption,  it  is  probable  that  at 
the  next  eruption,  these  are  filled  with  the  fused  matter, 


PARTICULAR  ERUPTION*.  107 

so  that  some  of  these  veins   may  be   formed   at   every 
eruption. 

Fig.  5. 


In  the  adjoining  diagram,  fig.  5,  from  Lyell's  Geology, 
these  veins  or  dykes,  are  represented,  as  also  is  the  cone 
and  crater  of  Vesuvius,  and  a  part  of  the  ancient  Somma, 
as  they  appeared  in  1828.  a,  Mount  Somma,  or  the  re- 
mains of  the  ancient  cone  of  Vesuvius ;  b,  the  Pedamentina, 
a  terrace-like  projection,  enclosing  the  base  of  the  recent 
cone  of  Vesuvius  on  the  south  side  ;  c,  Atrio  del  Cavallo, 
so  called,  because  travellers  leave  their  mules  there,  when 
they  prepare  to  ascend  to  the  cone,  on  foot ;  d  e,  the  crater 
of  Vesuvius  left  by  the  eruption  of  1822;  /,  a  small  cone 
in  the  bottom  of  the  crater,  thrown  up  in  1828.  In  the 
bottoms  of  many  craters  there  are  several  of  these  small 
conns,  which  are  constantly  emitting  steam,  or  smoke, 
and  sometimes  throw  up  lava;  g  g,  dykes  intersecting  the 
ancient  strata  of  Somma ;  h  h,  dykes  intersecting  the  re- 
cent cone  of  Vesuvius. 

Immense  volumes  of  steam,  or  aqueous  vapor,  are 
evolved  from  the  craters  of  volcanoes,  during  eruptions. 
These  vapors,  being  condensed  by  the  surrounding  at- 
mosphere, often  fall  down  in  torrents  of  rain.  The  rain 
precipitates  the  volcanic  dust  from  the  air,  and  sweeps 
that  along  which  had  fallen  on  the  declivity  of  the  moun- 
tain, until  a  torrent  of  mud  is  produced.  Such  torrents 
are  as  much  to  be  dreaded  as  the  inundations  of  mud 
which  are  sometimes  thrown  from  the  volcano,  and  with 
the  exception  of  the  heat,  are  more  disastrous  than  burn- 
ing lava,  being  much  more  rapid  in  their  descent.  In 
1822,  one  of  these  mud  streams  descended  from  Vesuvius, 
-and  after  destroying  a  district  of  cultivated  ground,  sud- 


108  PARTICULAR    ERUPTIONS, 

denly  flowed  into  the  villages  of  St.  Sebastian,  and  Massa, 
where  filling  the  streets,  and  some  of  the  houses,  it  suf- 
focated seven  persons. 

Destruction  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum,  These  cities 
were  overwhelmed,  and  destroyed  in  the  year  A.  D.  79, 
and  most  probably  either  by  an  alluvion  of  mud,  such  ns 
we  have  just  described,  or  by  an  emission  of  the  same 
kind  of  matter  from  the  mouth  of  the  volcano. 

It  has  been  supposed,  that  it  was  by  an  eruption  of  lava 
that  these  cities  were  destroyed;  but  Lippi,  an  Italian  wri- 
ter, has  shown  that  many  facts  presented  by  their  ruins 
are  incompatible  with  this  opinion.  Thus  the  casts,  or 
impressions  of  persons  which  still  remain,  especially  of  a 
woman,  found  in  a  vault  at  Pompeii,  cannot  be  accounted 
for  on  the  supposition  of  flowing  melted  lava,  nor  of  fall- 
ing volcanic  ashes,  for  the  first  would  hare  utterly  destroy- 
ed the  form  of  the  body,  and  the  second  could  not  have 
reached  through  the  roofs  of  the  buildings. 

"  There  is  decisive  evidence,"  says  Mr.  Lyell,  "  that  no 
stream  of  lava  ever  reached  Pompeii  since  it  was  first  built, 
although  the  foundations  of  the  town  stand  upon  the  old 
lava  of  Mount  Somma,  several  streams  of  which  have  been 
cut  through  in  making  excavations.  At  Herculaneum, 
the  case  is  different,  although  the  substance  which  fills  the 
interior  of  the  houses  and  vaults,  must  have  been  intro- 
duced in  a  state  of  mud,  like  that  found  in  similar  situa- 
tions in  Pompeii :  the  superincumbent  strata  differ  wholly 
in  composition  and  thickness.  Herculaneum  was  situated 
several  miles  nearer  to  the  volcano,  and  has,  therefore, 
been  always  more  exposed  to  be  covered,  not  only  by 
showers  of  ashes,  but  by  alluvions,  and  streams  of  lava. 
Accordingly,  masses  of  both  have  accumulated  on  each 
other  above  the  city,  to  a  depth  of  nowhere  less  than 
seventy,  and  in  some  places  112  feet.  The  tuff  or  mud, 
which  envelops  the  buildings,  consists  comminuted  vol- 
canic sand  mixed  with  pumice.  A  mask  imbedded  in  this 
matter  has  left  a  cast,  the  small  lines  and  angles  of  which 
are  quite  perfect,  nor  did  the  mask  present  the  least  indi- 
cation of  heat." 

These  cities  were  both  seaports,  and  Herculaneum  is 
still  near  the  shore,  but  Pompeii  is  at  some  distance  from 
it,  the  intervening  land  having  been  made,  at  various  times, 
by  volcanic  matter. 


PARTICULAR  ERUPTIONS.  109 

Herculaneura  was  discovered  1713,  by  the  accidental 
circumstance  of  a  well  being  dug,  which  came  directly 
upon  the  theatre,  where  the  statues  of  Hercules  and  Cleo- 
patra were  found.  These  cities  are  mentioned  by  ancient 
authors,  as  being  among  the  seven  flourishing  towns  of 
Campania;  they  were  originally  settled  by  Greek  colo- 
nies. 

Both  at  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii,  temples  have  been 
found  with  inscriptions,  commemorating  the  event  of  their 
rebuilding  after  having  been  overthrown  by  an  earthquake. 
This  earthquake  happened  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  sixty- 
three  years  after  the  Christian  era,  and  sixteen  years  before 
the  catastrophe  by  which  they  were  finally  destroyed. 

It  is  supposed  that  about  one-fourth  of  Pompeii  is  uncov- 
ered, presenting  streets,  walls,  temples,  houses,  and  monu- 
ments of  art,  many  cf  them  in  the  same  condition  as  they 
were  nearly  2000  years  ago.  Being  covered  with  a  del- 
uge of  mud,  even  the  paintings  have  been  preserved,  and 
the  wood  remains  in  a  perfect  state.  In  some  instances, 
the  walls  of  the  buildings  are  rent,  probably  by  the  earth- 
quake which  happened  before  the  fatal  eruption,  but  the 
edifices  chiefly  remain  entire. 

Circumstances  of  great  interest  and  curiosity  are  every- 
where indicated  among  these  ruins.  Columns  have  been 
found  lying  upon  the  ground  half  finished,  showing  that 
the  workmen  were  driven  from  their  labors ;  and  the  tem- 
ple for  which  they  were  designed,  remains  unfinished.  In 
some  places  the  pavement  in  the  streets  has  sunk  down, 
but,  in  general,  it  remains  entire,  consisting  of  great  flags 
of  lava,  in  which  two  immense  ruts  have  been  worn  by 
the  constant  passage  of  wheel  carriages.  When  the  hard- 
ness of  this  stone  is  considered,  the  continuity  of  these  ruts, 
from  one  end  of  the  town  to  the  other,  is  not  a  little  re- 
markable, for  there  is  nothing  like  it  in  the  oldest  pave- 
ments of  modern  cities. 

Only  a  very  small  number  of  skeletons  have  been 
found  in  either  city,  and  it  is  therefore  certain,  that  most 
of  the  inhabitants  had  time  to  escape,  and  also  to  take 
with  them  most  of  their  valuable  effects.  In  the  barracks 
of  Pompeii,  were  the  skeletons  of  two  soldiers  chained  to 
the  stocks;  and  in  the  vault  of  a  house,  in  the  suburbs, 
were  the  bones  of  seventeen  persons,  who  appear  to  have 
fled  there  to  escape  the  shower  of  ashes.  They  were 
found  enclosed  in  indurated  tuff  or  mud,  which  flowed 
10 


110  ERUPTIONS  OF  ETNA. 

from  the  mountain.  In  this  was  preserved  the  cast  of  a 
woman,  perhaps  the  mistress  of  the  house,  with  an  infant 
in  her  arms.  Though  her  form  was  impressed  in  the 
rock,  nothing  but  her  bones  remained.  To  these  bones  a 
chain  of  gold  was  suspended  around  the  neck,  and  rings, 
with  precious  stones,  were  found  on  the  finger-bones  of  the 
skeleton. 

The  writings  scribbled  by  the  soldiers  on  the  walls  of 
the  barracks  are  still  visible ;  and  the  names  of  the 
owners,  over  the  doors  of  their  houses,  are  often  easily 
read. 

The  colors  of  fresco  paintings  on  the  stuccoed  Avails, 
in  the  interior  of  the  buildings,  are  frequently  almost  as 
vivid  as  if  they  were  just  finished.  Some  of  the  public 
fountains  have  their  pavements  decorated  with  shells, 
laid  out  in  patterns,  still  retaining,  in  all  respects,  their 
original  condition ;  and,  in  the  room  of  a  painter,  who 
was,  perhaps,  also  a  naturalist,  was  found  a  large  collec- 
tion of  shells,  comprising  a  great  variety  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean species.  These  were  in  as  good  a  state  of  preser- 
vation as  if  they  had  remained  the  same  number  of  years 
in  a  museum. 

The  wooden  beams  of  the  houses  at  Herculaneum  are 
black  on  the  exterior,  but  when  cleft  open,  they  appear 
to  be  nearly  in  the  state  of  ordinary  wood,  and  the  pro- 
gress made  by  the  whole  mass  towards  the  state  of  lignite, 
[mineralized  wood,]  is  hardly  appreciable.  Even  small 
substances,  of  vegetable  origin,  are  often  found  in  a  state 
of  entire  vegetation.  Fishing  nets  are  abundant  in  both 
cities,  and  often  quite  perfect;  and  in  a  fruiterer's  shop 
were  found  vessels  full  of  almonds,  chestnuts,  and  walnuts, 
all  in  perfect  shape.  And  what  is  still  more  extraordi- 
nary, in  a  baker's  shop  was  discovered  bread,  Avith  the 
name  of  the  maker  stamped  upon  the  loaf,  thus,  Eleris  Q. 
Crani  Riser.  On  the  counter  of  an  apothecary  was  a  box 
of  pills,  converted  into  a  fine  earthy  substance,  and,  by  its 
side,  a  small  cylindrical  roll,  evidently  prepared  to  be  cut 
into  pills.  LyeWs  Geol.  vol.  i.  p.  350 — 360.  Forbes'  Ed. 
Journal,  Jan.  1829. 

Eruptions  of  Etna.  Etna  appears  to  have  been  peri- 
odically active  from  the  earliest  times  of  history,  for  Di- 
odorus  Siculus  mentions  an  eruption  of  it,  which  caused 
a  district  of  country  to  be  deserted  by  its  inhabitants  be- 


ERUPTIONS    OF    ETNA.  ill 

fore  the  Trojan  war  ;  and  Thucydides  informs  us  that  be- 
tween the  time  when  Sicily  was  colonized  by  the  Greeks, 
and  the  commencement  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  that  is, 
in  431  B.  C.,  there  had  occurred  three  eruptions  of  this 
mountain. 

But,  notwithstanding  notices  of  this  mountain  were 
recorded  thus  early,  the  first  eruption  which  has  been  par- 
ticularly described,  was  the  great  one  of  1669.  An  earth- 
quake, previous  to  this  eruption,  had  levelled  many  of  the 
villages  and  towns  in  the  neighborhood,  and  at  the  com- 
mencement of  which,  an  extraordinary  phenomenon  hap- 
pened in  the  plain  of  St.  Lio.  Here  a  fissure,  six  feet 
wide,  and  of  an  unknown  depth,  opened  in  the  ground, 
with  a  loud,  terrific,  crashing  noise,  and  ran  in  a  tortuous 
course  nearly  to  the  top  of  Etna.  Its  direction  was  from 
north  to  south,  and  its  length  twelve  miles.  This  fissure, 
as  it  opened,  emitted  vivid  flashes  of  light.  Five  other 
parallel  fissures  of  considerable  length,  afterwards  opened, 
one  after  the  other,  emitting  smoke,  and  giving  out  the 
most  horrid  bello wings,  which  were  heard  to  the  distance 
of  forty  miles. 

This  case  may,  perhaps,  explain  the  manner  in  which 
the  dykes  were  formed  in  the  cone  of  Vesuvius,  already 
described  and  figured,  for  the  light  emitted  by  these  fissures 
would  seem  to  indicate,  at  least  in  some  instances,  that 
they  were,  to  a  certain  height,  filled  with  glowing  lava. 

The  lava,  during  this  eruption,  having  overwhelmed 
and  destroyed  fourteen  towns,  some  of  them  containing 
three  or  four  thousand  inhabitants,  at  length  arrived  at 
the  walls  of  Catania,  a  populous  city,  situated  ten  miles 
from  the  volcano.  These  walls  had  been  raised  sixty  feet 
high,  towards  the  mountain,  in  order  to  protect  the  city, 
in  case  of  an  eruption.  But  the  burning  flood  accumula- 
ted against  the  wall  so  as  to  fill  all  the  space  around  and 
below  that  part,  and  finally  poured  over  it  in  a  fiery 
cataract,  destroying  every  thing  in  that  vicinity. 

From  Catania,  the  lava  continued  its  course  until  it 
reached  the  sea,  a  distance  of  fifteen  miles  from  its  source, 
in  a  current  about  1800  feet  broad,  and  forty  feet  deep. 
While  moving  on,  its  surface  was,  in  general,  a  mass  of 
solid  rock,  or  cooled  lava,  and  it  advanced  by  the  protru- 
sion of  the  melted  matter,  through  this  hardened  crust. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  intense  heat  of  volcanic  mat- 
ter, the  Canon  Recupero  relates,  that  in  1766,  he  ascend- 


112  VOLCANOES    IN    ICELAND. 

ed  a  small  hill,  composed  of  ancient  volcanic  matter,  in 
order  to  observe  the  slow  and  gradual  manner  in  which  a 
current  of  liquid  fire  advanced  from  Etna.  This  current 
was  two  and  a  half  miles  broad  ;  and,  while  he  stood  ob- 
serving it,  two  small  threads  of  lava,  issuing  from  a  cre- 
vice, detached  themselves  from  the  main  stream,  and 
approached  rapidly  towards  the  eminence  where  he  and 
his  guide  were  standing.  They  had  only  just  time  to 
escape,  when  they  saw  the  hill  on  which  they  had  stood  a 
few  minutes  before,  and  which  was  fifty  feet  high,  entirely 
surrounded,  and,  in  about  fifteen  minutes,  entirely  melted 
down  into  the  burning  mass,  so  as  to  be  incorporated  with, 
and  move  on  along  with  it. 

Discovery  of  Ice  on  Mount  Etna.  A  remarkable  dis- 
covery of  a  great  mass  of  ice,  on  Mount  Etna,  was  made 
in  1828.  In  that  year,  in  consequence  of  the  protracted 
heat  of  the  season,  the  supplies  of  ice  at  Catania  and  the 
adjoining  parts  of  Sicily,  failed  entirely,  and  the  people 
suffered  considerably  for  the  want  of  an  article,  considered 
as  necessary  to  health  as  well  as  comfort  in  that  hot 
climate. 

In  this  dilemma,  the  magistrates  of  Catania  directed 
search  to  be  made  for  some  crevice  or  natural  grotto,  on 
Mount  Etna,  where  drift  snow  might  possibly  still  be  pre- 
served. During  this  search  it  was  discovered  that  near 
the  base  of  the  highest  cone  there  lay  a  vast  mass  of  ice, 
covered  by  a  lava  current.  At  what  period  this  current 
was  emitted  is  unknown,  nor  can  it  be  conjectured  what 
proportion  of  the  ice  was  melted  by  the  burning  matter, 
but  it  appears  that  nothing  but  the  flowing  of  the  lava 
over  this  glacier,  can  account  for  its  preservation. 

A  large  number  of  workmen  were  immediately  em- 
ployed to  quarry  this  ice  for  the  use  of  the  Catanians ;  but, 
it  is  said,  that  its  hardness  rendered  the  expense  of  obtain- 
ing it  so  great,  that  there  is  no  probability  of  a  similar  un- 
dertaking, unless  under  similar  circumstances. 


VOLCANOES    IN    ICELAND. 


Iceland  is  both  a  volcanic  country,  and  a  country  of  vol- 
canoes.    A  considerable  proportion  of  its  surface  is  COT 


VOLCANOES    IN    ICELAND.  113 

eretl  with  ancient  or  modern  lava,  and  it  is  now  subject  to 
the  most  dreadful  calamities  from  this  source. 

With  the  exception  of  Etna  and  Vesuvius,  the  most 
complete  chronological  records  of  volcanic  eruptions  are 
those  of  Iceland.  From  these  it  is  ascertained,  that  from 
the  12th  century,  there  has  never  been  an  interval  of  more 
than  forty  years,  and  rarely  more  than  twenty,'  without 
eruptions  and  earthquakes  in  some  part  of  that  country. 
Single  eruptions  of  Mount  Hecla  have  sometimes  contin- 
ued for  six  years.  In  many  instances  the  whole  island 
has  been  convulsed  by  earthquakes,  during  which  moun- 
tains were  rent  asunder,  hills  sunk  down,  and  rivers  have 
deserted  their  former  channels. 

Eruption  of  Skaptar  Jokul.  In  1783,  this  volcanic 
mountain  suffered  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  eruptions 
recorded  in  history,  both  with  respect  to  the  quantity  of  lava 
it  threw  out,  and  the  calamities  it  occasioned. 

The  river  Skapta,  a  considerable  stream,  was  for  a  time 
completely  dried,  by  a  torrent  of  liquid  fire  from  this 
mountain/  This  river  was  about  two  hundred  feet  broad, 
and  its  banks  from  four  to  six  hundred  above  the  level  of 
the  water.  This  defile  was  not  only  entirely  filled  to  a 
considerable  extent  by  the  lava,  but  it  also  crossed  the  river 
by  the  dam  thus  formed,  and  overflowed  the  country  be- 
yond, where  it  filled  a  lake  of  considerable  extent,  and  great 
depth. 

This  eruption  commenced  on  the  1 1th  of  June,  and  on 
the  18th  of  the  same  month,  a  still  greater  quantity  of  lava 
rushed  from  the  mouth  of  the  volcano,  and  flowed  with 
amazing  rapidity,  sometimes  over  the  first  stream,  but  gene- 
rally in  a  new  course.  The  melted  matter  having  crossed 
some  of  the  tributary  streams  of  the  Skapta,  completely 
dammed  up  their  waters,  and  caused  great  destruction 
of  property  and  lives  by  their  overflow.  The  lava,  after 
flowing  for  several  days,  was  precipitated  down  a  tre- 
mendous cataract,  called  Stapafoss,  where  it  filled  a  pro- 
found abyss,  which  that  great  water-fall  had  been  exca- 
vating for  ages,  and  thence  the  fiery  flood  continued  its 
course. 

On  the  third  of  August,  a  new  eruption  poured  forth 
fresh  floods  of  lava,  which  taking  a  different  direction 
from  the  others,  filled  the  bed  of  another  river,  by  which 
10* 


114  VOLCANOES  IN  ICELAND. 

a  large  lake  was  formed,  and  much  property  and  many 
lives  destroyed. 

The  effects  of  this  dreadful  calamity  may  in  some  meas- 
ure be  imagined  when  it  is  known,  that  although  Iceland 
did  not,  at  that  time  contain  more  than  fifty  thousand  in- 
habitants, there  perished  nine  thousand  human  beings  by 
this  single  eruption,  making  nearly  one  in  five  of  the 
whole  population.  Part  of  them  were  destroyed  by  the 
burning  lava  itself,  some  by  drowning,  others  by  noxious 
vapors  which  the  lava  emitted,  and  others  in  consequence 
of  the  famine,  caused  by  the  showers  of  ashes  which  cov- 
ered a  great  proportion  of  the  island,  and  destroyed  the 
vegetation.  The  fish  also,  on  which  the  inhabitants  de- 
pended, in  a  great  measure,  for  food,  entirely  deserted  the 
coast. 

The  quantity  of  lava  which  Skaptar  Jokul  emitted«dur- 
ing  this  eruption,  was  greater  than  is  recorded  of  any  other 
volcano.  The  two  principal  branches  or  streams  of  lava, 
flowed  chiefly  in  different  directions.  The  length  of  the 
smallest  was  forty  miles,  and  of  the  other  fifty  miles.  The 
breadth  of  that  branch  which  filled  the  Skapta,  was  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  miles,  and  the  other  about  seven  miles. 
The  ordinary  depth  of  each  was  about  100  feet,  but  in 
narrow  defiles  it  was  more  than  600  feet  deep,  and  in  many 
places  from  200  to  300. 

Allowing  that  the  united  breadth  of  this  vast  lava  stream 
was  20  miles,  and  the  whole  length  90  miles,  then  this 
mountain,  at  a  single  eruption,  threw  out  a  quantity  of  lava 
which  covered  a  surface  of  1800  square  miles,  an  area 
equal  to  the  fourth  part  of  the  State  of  Connecticut,  and 
nearly  one  half  the  size  of  Rhode  Island. 

When  it  is  considered  that  the  depth  of  the  whole  might 
average  150  feet,  we  may  go  into  calculations  concerning 
the  quantity  of  matter  thrown  out,  but  we  ean  have  no  con- 
ception of  the  force  required  to  elevate  such  a  stream  of 
melted  rock  through  the  crust  of  the  earth. 

Eruption  of  Jorullo,  in  1759.  Jorullo  is  situated  in  the 
interior  of  Mexico,  about  100  miles  from  the  nearest  sea. 
This  mountain,  as  already  stated,  affords  the  only  known 
instance  of  a  volcano,  at  a  distance  from  some  ocean.  It 
also  affords  an  instance  of  the  production  of  a  new  volcanic 
mountain,  within  the  memory  of  man. 


VOLCANO  OF  SUMBAWA.  115 

In  June,  1759,  subterranean  sounds  of  an  alarming  kind 
were  heard  by  the  inhabitants  of  this  district,  and  these 
were  followed  by  earthquakes,  which  succeeded  each 
other  for  two  months.  In  the  month  of  September,  flames 
were  seen  to  issue  from  fissures  in  the  ground,  and  from 
the  same  place,  red  hot  rocks  were  thrown  to  an  immense 
height.  Soon  after,  six  volcanic  cones  were  formed  of 
lava  and  the  fragments  of  rock,  thrown  up  from  the  earth, 
in  the  same  neighborhood.  The  least  of  these  was  three 
hundred  feet  in  height.  In  the  midst  of  these  cones,  rose 
Jorullo,  which  was  formed  in  the  same  manner,  and  soon 
rose  to  the  height  of  1600  feet  by  the  accumulation  of  lava 
and  fragments  of  rock.  The  small  cones  ceasing  their 
action,  Jorullo  became  the  great  outlet  of  volcanic  matter, 
and  continued  to  emit  lava  and  large  fragments  of  primi- 
tive rock,  for  many  months.  Jorullo  has  continued  to  emit 
flames  ever  since  its  formation. 

Volcano  of  Sumbawa.  Sumbawa  is  one  of  the  Molucca 
Islands ;  and  the  mountain  from  which  occurred,  on 
some  accounts,  the  most  extraordinary  volcanic  eruption 
of  which  any  accounts  have  been  recorded,  is  called  Tom- 
boro. 

This  eruption  commenced  on  the  5th  of  April,  1815,  but 
was  most  terrific  on  the  llth  and  12th  of  that  month,  nor 
did  it  cease  entirely,  until  sometime  in  the  following  July. 
The  explosions  so  much  resembled  the  firing  of  heavy  can- 
non at  a  distance,  that  the  people  of  many  vessels  at  sea, 
supposed  there  was  a  great  naval  engagement  within  hear- 
ing, but  could  not  imagine  what  nations  were  engaged. 

The  commanders  of  some  ships,  and  of  several  English 
forts,  gave  orders  to  prepare  for  battle,  though  they  were 
several  hundred  miles  distant  from  the  mountain.  At  Su- 
matra, these  tremendous  explosions  were  distinctly  heard, 
though  not  nearer  than  900  miles  from  Tomboro.  They 
were  also  heard  at  Ternate,  in  the  opposite  direction  from 
Sumatra,  at  the  distance  of  720  miles  from  the  mountain. 

So  immense  in  quantity  was  the  fall  of  ashes,  that  at 
Bima,  forty  miles  from  the  mountain,  the  roof  of  the  Eng- 
lish Resident's  house  was  crushed  by  the  weight,  and  many 
other  houses  in  the  same  town  were  rendered  uninhabita- 
ble from  the  same  cause.  At  Java,  300  miles  distant,  the 
air  was  so  full  of  ashes,  that  from  this  cause  at  mid -day,  it 
is  said  the  darkness  was  so  profound,  that  nothing  like  it 


116  EARTHQUAKES. 

had  ever  before  been  experienced,  during  the  most  stormy 
night. 

Along  the  coast  of  Sumbawa,  the  sea  was  covered  with 
floating  lava,  intermixed  with  trees  and  timber,  so  that  it 
was  difficult  for  vessels  to  sail  through  the  mass.  Some 
captains,  though  at  a  long  distance  at  sea,  mistook  this 
mass  for  land,  and  sent  out  their  boats  in  order  to  ascertain 
the  safety  of  their  situations.  The  sea,  on  this  and  the 
neighboring  coasts,  rose  suddenly  to  the  height  of  twelve 
feet,  in  the  form  of  immense  waves,  and  as  they  retired, 
swept  away  trees,  timber,  and  houses,  with  their  inhabi- 
tants. All  the  vessels  lying  near  the  shore  were  torn  from 
their  anchorings,  and  cast  upon  the  land.  Violent  whirl- 
winds carried  into  the  air  men,  horses,  cattle,  trees,  and 
whatever  else  was  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mountain.  Large 
trees  were  torn  up  by  the  roots,  and  carried  into  the  sea. 
But  the  most  calamitous  part  of  the  account  still  remains; 
for  such  were  the  tremendous  effects  of  the  burning  lava ; 
the  overflowing  of  the  sea ;  the  fall  of  houses ;  and  the  vio- 
lence of  the  whirlwind,  that  out  of  12,000  inhabitants  on 
this  island,  only  twenty-six  individuals  escaped  with  their 
lives,  all  the  rest  being  destroyed  in  one  way  or  another. 

The  whole  island  was  completely  covered  with  ashes,  or 
other  volcanic  matter.  In  some  places,  the  bottom  of  the 
sea  was  so  elevated,  as  to  make  shoals,  where  there  was 
deep  water  before ;  and  in  others,  the  land  sunk  down,  and 
was  overflown  by  the  sea. 

The  details  of  this  awful  calamity  were  collected,  and 
published  by  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  then  Governor  of  Java, 
who  required  all  the  residents  in  the  various  districts  under 
his  authority,  to  send  him  a  statement  of  the  circumstances 
which  fell  under  their  several  observations. — See  Raffles' 
Hist,  of  Java ;  and  Brande's  Quart.  Jour.  vol.  i. 


EARTHQUAKES. 

Having  thus  given  a  short  history  of  a  sufficient  num 
ber  of  volcanic  eruptions,  to  acquaint  the  geological  stu- 
dent with  the  phenomena,  and  of  the  tremendous  as  well 
as  calamitous  effects  of  these  mighty  agents,  we  will  next 
refer  to  the  subject  of  earthquakes,  as  resulting  from  the 
same  cause. 


EARTHQUAKE    OF    CALABRIA.  117 

Earthquake  of  Calabria.  "  Of  the  numerous  earth- 
quakes," says  Mr.  Lyell,  "  which  have  occurred  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  globe,  during  the  last  100  years,  that  of  Ca- 
labria, in  1783,  is  the  only  one  of  which  the  geologist  can 
be  said  to  have  such  a  circumstantial  account,  as  to  enable 
him  fully  to  appreciate  the  changes  which  this  cause  is 
capable  of  producing  in  the  lapse  of  ages.  The  shocks  be- 
gan in  February,  1783,  and  lasted  nearly  four  years,  to 
the  end  of  1786."  The  importance  of  the  earthquake  in 
question,  arises  from  the  circumstance,  that  Calabria  is  the 
only  spot  hitherto  visited,  both  during  and  after  the  con- 
vulsions, by  men  possessing  sufficient  leisure,  zeal,  and 
scientific  information,  to  enable  them  to  collect  and  de- 
scribe with  accuracy,  the  physical  facts  which  throw  light 
on  geological  questions. — Lyell,  vol.  i.  p.  412. 

Authors  who  witnessed  the  phenomena  of  these  con- 
vulsions, are  quite  numerous.  Among  them,  it  is  said  that 
Pignataro,  a  physician,  who  resided  at  the  centre  of  the 
earthquakes,  and  who  kept  a  register  of  the  number  and 
force  of  the  shocks,  is  among  the  most  correct.  The 
Royal  Academy  of  Naples,  also  sent  a  commission  from 
their  own  body  to  Calabria,  accompanied  by  artists,  with 
instructions  to  describe  and  illustrate  by  drawings,  the  ef- 
fects of  these  terrible  convulsions  ;  and  Sir  William  Ham- 
ilton, who  surveyed  this  district  before  the  shocks  had 
ceased,  has  added  many  facts  not  recorded  by  others.  Our 
limits  will,  however,  allow  only  a  very  brief  summary  of 
the  facts,  from  these  several  sources. 

The  subterranean  concussions  were  felt  beyond  the  con- 
fines of  Sicily ;  but  if  the  city  of  Oppido,  in  Calabria,  be 
taken  as  the  centre,  a  circle  around  it,  whose  radius  is 
twenty-two  miles,  would  include  the  space  which  suffered 
the  greatest  calamities.  Within  this  circle,  all  the  towns 
and  villages  were  almost  entirely  destroyed. 

The  first  shock,  which  took  place  on  the  5th  of  Febru- 
ary, 1783,  threw  down,  in  the  space  of  two  minutes,  a 
greater  part  of  the  houses,  within  the  whole  space  above 
described.  The  convulsive  motion  of  the  earth,  is  said  to 
have  resembled  the  rolling  of  the  sea,  and  that  in  many 
instances,  it  produced  swimming  of  the  head,  like  sea-sick- 
ness. This  rolling  of  the  surface,  like  the  billows  of  the  sea, 
was  like  that  which  would  have  been  produced  by  the  agi- 
tation of  a  vast  mass  of  liquid  matter  under  the  ground. 

In  some  walls  which  were  shattered,  the  separate  stones 


118 


EARTHQUAKE    OF    CALABRIA. 


were  parted  from  the  mortar  so  as  to  leave  an  exact  mould 
where  they  had  rested,  as  though  the  stone  had  been  care- 
fully raised  from  its  bed  in  a  perpendicular  direction  ;  but 
in  other  instances,  the  mortar  was  ground  to  powder  be- 
tween the  stones,  as  though  they  had  been  made  to  re- 
volve on  each  other. 

It  was  found  that  the  swelling,  or  wave-like  motions, 
and  those  which  were  called  vorticose,  or  whirling,  often 
produced  the  most  singular  and  unaccountable  effects. 
Thus,  in  some  streets,  in  the  town  of  Monteleone,  every 
house  was  thrown  down,  except  one,  and  in  some  other 
streets,  all  except  two  or  three ;  and  these  were  left  un- 
injured, though  differing  in  no  respects  from  the  others. 

In  many  cities  all  the  most  solid  edifices  were  prostra- 
ted, while  those  which  were  slightly  built,  escaped  ;  but, 
in  others,  it  was  precisely  the  reverse,  the   massive  build- 
ings being  the  only  ones  that  remained  standing. 
Fig.  6. 


But,  perhaps,  the  most  singular  effect  was  that  pro- 
duced on  a  pair  of  obelisks,  at  the  convent  of  St.  Bruno, 
where  the  different  stones  composing  these  monuments, 
were  moved  on  each  other,  in  a  manner  altogether  un- 
accountable, unless,  indeed,  it  can  be  suppose^  that  the 
earth,  where  each  stood,  underwent  a  rapid  gyratory  mo- 
tion. The  shock  which  shook  the  convent,  is  said  to  have 
been  of  that  kind  which  writers  describe  by  the  term  vor- 
ticose, or  whirling.  The  annexed  cut,  fig.  6,  will  convey 
an  idea  of  these  effects. 


EARTHQUAKE  AT  CALABRIA.  119 

The  pedestal  of  each  obelisk  remained  in  its  original 
situation  and  place ;  but  the  separate  stones  were  turned 
partly  around  on  each  other,  as  represented  in  the  figures ; 
some  of  them  being  moved  eight  or  nine  inches  out  of  their 
places,  but  none  were  thrown  down. 

It  appears  from  the  statements,  that  in  many  instances, 
where  the  ground  was  fissured,  the  motion  must  have  been 
from  below,  upwards,  for  these  fissures  opened  and  closed 
alternately,  as  though  the  ground,  in  that  particular  spot, 
had  been  violently  lifted  up  with  a  force  from  below,  by 
which  a  fissure  was  formed,  but,  the  force  ceasing  instantly, 
the  ground  again  assumed  its  former  position,  and  the  fis- 
sure closed.  Perhaps  the  escape  of  some  gas  or  steam 
through  the  fissure,  produced  this  effect. 

In  many  instances,  these  fissures  were  so  wide  as  in  an 
instant  to  swallow  up  men,  trees,  and  even  houses,  and 
when  the  earth  sunk  down  again,  it  closed  upon  them  so 
entirely,  as  not  to  leave  the  least  vestige  of  what  had  hap- 
pened, nor  were  any  signs  of  them  ever  discovered  after- 
wards. In  the  vicinity  of  Oppido,  the  centre  of  these  con- 
vulsions, many  houses  were  precipitated  into  the  same  great 
fissure,  which  immediately  closed  over  them;  and,  in  the 
same  neighborhood,  four  farmhouses,  several  oil  stores 
and  dwelling-houses  were  so  entirely  ingulfed,  that  not  a 
vestige  of  them  were  seen  afterwards. 

In  some  instances,  these  chasms  did  not  close.  In  one 
district,  a  ravine,  formed  in  this  manner,  a  mile  long,  100 
feet  broad,  and  thirty  feet  deep,  remained  open ;  and  in  an- 
other, a  similar  one  remained,  three-quarters  of  a  mile 
long,  150  feet  wide,  and  100  feet  deep;  in  another  instance, 
there  remained  such  a  chasm  thirty  feet  wide,  and  225  feet 
deep. 

In  various  places,  the  ground  sunk  down,  and  lakes 
were  formed,  which,  being  fed  by  springs,  have  remained 
ever  since.  The  convulsions  also  removed  immense 
masses  of  earth  from  the  sides  of  steep  hills  into  the  val- 
leys below,  so  that,  in  many  instances,  oaks,  olive  orchards, 
vineyards,  and  cultivated  fields,  were  seen  growing  at  the 
bottoms  of  deep  hollows,  having  been  removed  from  the 
side  hills  of  the  vicinity.  In  one  instance,  a  mass  of  earth 
200  feet  thick,  and  400  feet  in  diameter,  being  set  in  mo- 
tion by  one  of  the  first  shocks,  travelled  four  miles  into 
the  valley  belo 


ey 


nv. 


The  violence  of  the  upward  motion  of  the  ground  waa 


120  EARTHQUAKE   AT  CALABRIA. 

singularly  illustrated  by  the  inversion  of  heavy  bodies  ly- 
ing on  the  surface,  and  which  can  hardly  be  accounted  for, 
except  on  the.  supposition  that  they  were  actually  thrown 
to  a  considerable  distance  into  the  air.  Thus,  in  some 
towns,  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  flat  paving  stones, 
were  found  with  their  lower  sides  uppermost.  Mr.  Ly- 
ell  accounts  for  this  effect,  by  supposing  that  the  "  stones 
were  propelled  upwards  by  the  momentum  which  they  had 
acquired,  and  that  the  adhesion  of  one  end  of  the  mass 
being  greater  than  the  other,  a  rotary  motion  had  been 
communicated  to  them."  But  it  is  difficult  to  conceive 
how  a  whirling  motion,  so  rapid  as  to  produce  such  an  ef- 
fect, could  have  been  communicated  to  a  whole  town, 
without  producing  seme  consequences  still  more  extraordi- 
nary. 

In  the  plain  of  Rosarno,  a  different  effect  was  produced 
from  any  yet  described.  This  plain  consists  of  an  alluvial 
soil,  which,  after  the  commencement  of  the  earthquakes, 
was  found  covered  with  circular  hollows,  containing  water, 
and  around  the  hollows,  were  fissures  radiating  from  their 
sides  in  every  direction,  as  represented  by  fig.  7. 

Fig.  7. 


These  were,  for  the  most  part,  about  the  size  of  carriage 
wheels,  but  sometimes  larger  or  smaller.  When  filled 
with  water  to  within  a  foot  or  two  of  the  surface,  they 
appeared  like  wells,  but  more  commonly  they  were  filled 
with  dry  sand,  sometimes  with  a  concave,  and  at  others 
with  a  convex  surface.  On  digging  into  the  earth,  these 
cavities  were  found  to  be  funnel-shaped,  the  moist  loose 
earth  in  the  centre,  indicating  the  tube  through  which  the 
water  had  ascended.  The  annexed  cut,  fig.  7,  is  intended 
to  represent  a  section  of  these  inverted  cones,  when  the 
water  had  disappeared,  leaving  nothing  in  it  but  dry  mi- 
caceous sand.  This  sand  appeared  to  have  been  brought 


EARTHQUAKE    OF    CALABRIA.  121 

up  from  beneath  by  the  water  which  was  sometimes  found 
over  the  sand. 

Fig.  8. 


But  our  limits  will  not  allow  the  description  of  other  ef- 
fects and  appearances,  which  this  dreadful  calamity  produ- 
ced, some  of  which  are  equally  curious  and  inexplicable. 

We  must  not,  however,  close  this  account  without  re- 
ference to  an  incident  connected  with  the  destruction  of  hu- 
man life,  as  well  as  to  the  number  of  responsible  beings 
which  were  suddenly  called  to  the  world  of  spirits,  by  this 
appalling  act  of  a  mysterious  Providence. 

The  Prince  Scilla  had  persuaded  many  of  his  people  to 
betake  themselves  to  their  fishing  boats,  as  a  place  of  safety, 
on  the  first  indications  of  an  earthquake,  which  in  that  vo'l- 
canic  country  are  so  well  understood,  and  which  create  so 
much  alarm.  The  Prince  himself  had  set  the  example, 
by  going  on  board  of  one  of  these  boats.  On  the  fifth  of 
February,  when  the  first  violent  shock  happened,  many 
of  these  people  were  sleeping  in  their  boats  near  the  shore, 
while  others  were  on  the  shore,  at  a  place  little  elevated 
above  the  sea.  With  this  convulsion  the  earth  rocked, 
and  suddenly  there  was  precipitated  a  great  mass  of  rock 
from  Mount  Jaci,  on  the  pftiin  where  the  people  had  taken 
refuge,  and  immediately  after  the  water  rose  to  a  great 
height  above  its  ordinary  level,  and  swept  away  the  sleep- 
ing multitude.  The  wave  then  instantly  retreated,  but 
soon  after  returned  again  with  increased  violence,  bringing 
back  many  of  the  people,  and  animals,  which  it  had  car- 
ried away.  At  the  same  time  every  boat  in  the  vicinity 
was  overwhelmed,  or  dashed  against  the  beach,  and  thus 
destroyed.  The  Prince,  who  was  an  aged  man,  with 
11 


122  EARTHQUAKE    OF    CALABRIA. 

1400  of  his  people,  were  thus  swept  away,  and  perished  in 
the  sea. 

The  number  of  human  beings  who  were  destroyed  by 
this  series  of  earthquakes,  was  estimated  by  Sir  William 
Hamilton,  at  about  40,000,  besides  which  nearly  20,000 
more  died  by  epidemics,  which  were  occasioned  by  insuf- 
ficient nourishment,  and  the  noxious  vapors  arising  from 
the  new  lakes  and  pools  of  water,  which  this  terrible  catas- 
trophe occasioned, —  thus  making  the  whole  number  that 
perished  60,000. 

In  countries  where  volcanoes  exist,  and  which  are  also 
subject  to  earthquakes,  experience  has  taught,  that  the 
earthquakes  cease,  or  become  harmless,  so  soon  as  an  erup- 
tion from  the  mountain  commences.  On  the  supposition 
that  the  earth  constantly  contains  within  it  an  ocean  of 
lava  or  melted  matter;  that  earthquakes  are  caused  by 
some  disturbance  of  this  liquid  ;  and  that  volcanoes  are  its 
chimneys,  or  outlets  when  thus  disturbed,  this  fact  would 
admit  of  an  easy  explanation.  In  another  place  we  shall 
bring  forward  many  circumstances,  to  show  that  this  theory 
may  be  true,  and  shall  only  remark  here,  that  the  Cala- 
brian  earthquakes  may  be  brought  as  an  item  in  support 
of  this  doctrine, -for  neither  Etna  nor  any  of  the  Italian 
volcanoes,  suffered  the  least  sign  of  eruption  during  these 
destructive  convulsions. 

Earthquake  of  Lisbon.  This  great  earthquake  hap- 
pened in  the  month  of  November,  1755,  and  with  respect 
to  the  wide  extent  to  which  it  was  felt,  exceeded  all  others 
of  which  there  is  any  account. 

The  first  intimation  of  its  approach  was  a  loud  subterra- 
nean noise,  somewhat  like  distant  thunder,  and  immedi- 
ately afterwards,  the  city  of  Lisbon  was  shook  with  such 
violence  as  to  prostrate  nearly  all  its  houses.  The  wretch- 
ed inhabitants,  with  so  short  a  warning,  were  unable  to  take 
the  least  precaution  for  their  safety,  so  that  in  about  six 
minutes  60,000  people  perished. 

The  sea  at  first  retired,  and  laid  bare  the  bed  of  the  har- 
bor, after  which  it  immediately  rolled  back,  in  an  immense 
wave,  rising  fifty  feet,  at  least,  above  its  ordinary  level. 
The  largest  mountains  in  Portugal  were  shaken  to  their 
foundations,  and  several  had  their  summits  rent  in  a  man- 
ner which  struck  every  beholder  with  astonishment. 


EARTHQUAKE    OF    LISBON.  123 

But  the  most  extraordinary  and  calamitous  effect  which 
was  produced  at  Lisbon,  was  the  sinking  of  a  quay,  to- 
gether with  the  thousands  of  inhabitants  with  which  it  was 
covered.  This  work  was  built  entirely  of  marble,  and  just 
finished  at  an  immense  expense  ;  and  on  it,  after  the  first 
shock,  a  vast  concourse  of  people  had  collected  as  a 
place  of  safety,  having  left  the  city  to  escape  the  fall  of  the 
houses.  But  it  proved  the  most  fatal  spot  in  the  vicinity, 
for  at  the  next  shock  the  earth  opened  and  instantly 
swallowed  up  the  whole  quay,  with  the  multitude  which 
had  there  assembled,  and  so  completely  were  the  whole 
retained  by  the  closing  of  the  earth,  that  not  a  single  dead 
body  ever  rose  again  to  the  surface.  A  great  number  of 
small  boats  and  other  vessels,  near  the  quay,  filled  with 
people,  as  a  place  of  safety,  were  also  precipitated  into  the 
yawning  vortex,  and  it  is  stated  that  riot  a  single  fragment 
of  any  of  these  boats  were  ever  seen  afterwards.  It  was 
believed  that  the  water  where  the  quay  stood  was  un- 
fathomable, but  its  depth  was  afterwards  found  to  be  600 
feet. 

The  immense  area  over  which  this  earthquake  was  felt, 
is  very  remarkable  ;  for  not  only  was  every  part  of  Spain 
and  Portugal  convulsed,  but  the  shocks  were  perceived 
with  greater  or  less  intensity  in  England,  Holland,  Italy, 
Norway,  Sweden,  Germany,  Switzerland,  Corsica,  the 
West  Indies,  at  Morocco  and  Algiers  in  Africa,  and  in  a 
part  of  South  America.  At  Algiers  the  shock  was  so 
violent  as  to  throw  down  many  buildings  ;  and  a  village, 
not  far  from  Morocco,  was  swallowed  up,  and  10,000  in- 
habitants perished.  A  great  wave  from  the  sea  swept 
nearly  the  whole  coast  of  Spain.  At  Cadiz  its  height  is 
said  to  have  been  sixty  feet,  and  its  devastations  in  pro- 
portion. 

The  shock  was  also  felt  by  ships  far  at  sea,  and,  in  seve- 
ral instances,  the  concussion  was  such  as  to  make  the  peo- 
ple suppose  their  vessels  had  struck  on  a  rock.  In  one 
instance  it  is  said  that  the  people  on  board  a  vessel  off  the 
West  Indies,  were  thrown  up  a  foot  and  a  half  from  the 
deck.  This  circumstance  may  be  accounted  for  from  the 
inelasticity  of  water,  so  that  a  violent  and  sudden  move- 
ment of  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  would  be  communicated 
to  the  surface  and  to  the  ship,  through  the  medium  of  the 
fluid,  with  nearly  the  same  force  as  though  the  vessel  had 
been  on  the  ground  itself. 


124  ALEUTIAN    ISLANDS 

Islands  raised  from  the  Sea.  Numerous  instances  are 
recorded  of  the  elevation  of  islands,  of  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent, from  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 

Writers  of  antiquity  have  mentioned  several  such  in- 
stances. The  elder  Pliny  says  that  the  celebrated  islands 
of  Rhodes  and  Delos,  according  to  tradition,  are  sea  born, 
and  that,  after  these,  several  smaller  islands  rose  up  from 
the  bottom  of  the  same  sea.  Strabo  also  asserts,  positively, 
that  Hiero  was  produced  in  the  midst  of  flames,  and  both 
Plutarch  and  Justin  relate,  that  the  formation  of  this 
island  was  attended  with  much  fire,  and  a  great  boiling  of 
the  sea. 

But  we  are  not  entirely  dependent  on  the  ancients  for 
facts  of  this  kind,  many  instances  of  the  elevation  of  islands 
having  been  witnessed  in  later  times. 

Captain  Tillard,  of  the  Royal  British  Navy,  was  an  eye 
witness  to  the  rising  of  an  island  from  the  ocean,  in  1812. 

At  some  distance  off  the  coast  of  St.  Michael's,  one  of 
the  Azores,  an  immense  body  of  smoke  was  observed  to 
issue  from  the  water,  and  from  the  midst  of  the  smoke, 
there  suddenly  burst  forth  a  black  column  of  cinders,  ashes 
and  stones,  in  the  form  of  a  spire.  This  was  accompanied 
by  vivid  flashes  of  lightning  from  the  thickest  part  of  the 
volcanic  smoke,  and  the  whole  was  surrounded  by  occa- 
sional waterspouts. 

The  water  at  this  place  was  thirty  fathoms  deep,  and 
after  the  volcanic  phenomena  had  lasted  four  days,  the 
crater  began  to  appear  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  and 
soon  became  twenty  feet  high  in  the  midst  of  an  island  400 
feet  in  diameter.  At  this  time  the  cliffs  of  St.  Michael's 
were  shattered  by  an  earthquake,  and  the  island  continued 
to  rise  until  it  became  at  least  200  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea. 

This  island  was  named  Sabrina,  after  Captain  Tillard's 
ship.  It  did  not,  however,  long  continue  visible,  for  being 
formed  chiefly  of  ashes  and  cinders,  and  not  by  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  solid  rocks,  it  was  soon  swept  away  by  the  waves 
of  the  ocean. 

Aleutian  Islands.  In  the  year  1806,  there  arose  from 
the  sea  a  new  island,  among  the  Aleutian  group,  north  of 
Kamtschatka.  This,  according  to  Langsdorf,  who  after- 
wards visited  the  spot,  was  four  geographical  miles  ir  cir- 
cumference; and  the  geologist,  Von  Bush  m^rs  from  its 


MONTE    NUOTO.  125 

not  having  subsided,  that  it  does  not,  like  Sabrina,  consist 
of  ejected  volcanic  matter,  but  of  solid  rock,  thrown  up 
from  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 

In  1814,  another  island  was  added  to  the  Aleutian  group, 
from  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  This  was  much  larger  than 
the  former,  and  its  highest  part  was  elevated  to  the  aston- 
ishing height  of  3000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

In  1820,  a  new  island  was  thrown  up  among  the  Ionian 
group,  on  the  coast  of  Greece. 

In  1757,  eighteen  small  islands  were  elevated  from  the 
sea,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Azores. 

In  1783,  the  same  phenomenon  happened  on  the  coast 
oi  Iceland. 

Many  other  instances  of  sea  born  islands  are  recorded, 
but  we  need  not  extend  this  list,  our  chief  object  being  to 
show  that  islands  are  elevated  from  the  ocean  by  the  force 
of  volcanic  action. 

Elevation  of  Land  by  Volcanic  Power.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1822,  there  happened  a  series  of  subterranean  convul- 
sions on  the  coast  of  Chili,  which  continued  three  months, 
and  which  shook  that  part  of  South  America  to  the  extent 
of  1400  miles  from  north  to  south.  On  the  morning 
after  the  first  shock,  the  whole  line  of  coast  along  Valpa- 
raiso, to  the  distance  of  100  miles,  was  found  to  have  been 
raised  above  its  former  level.  Mrs.  Graham,  who  was  pre- 
sent, and  who  writes  this  account,  states  that  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  20th,  the  wreck  of  an  old  ship,  which  lay  at 
a  small  distance  from  the  shore,  but  which  could  not  be 
approached,  on  account  of  the  depth  of  the  water,  was 
now  easily  accessible.  She  also  found  the  former  bed  of 
the  sea,  along  the  shore,  laid  bare,  with  muscles,  oysters, 
and  other  shell  fish,  adhering  to  the  rocks  on  which  they 
grew,  and  abundance  of  fish,  dead  and  on  dry  land.  At 
Valparaiso,  the  elevation  of  the  land  was  found  to  be 
three  feet,  but  at  other  places,  the  rise  was  from  four  to 
five  feet. 

Formation  of  Monte  Nuovo.  Monte  Nuovo,  or  New 
Mountain,  was  chiefly  thrown  up  on  the  night  of  the  29th 
of  September,  1538.  Its  situation  is  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Naples,  a  region  everywhere  volcanic. 

The  site  of  the  present  Monte  Nuovo  was  formerly  a 
little  town,  where  invalids  resorted  on  account  of  the  ther- 
11* 


126  FORMATION    OF    MONTE    NUOVO. 

mal  baths  which  existed  there.  On  the  evening  above 
mentioned,  after  many  previous  shocks  of  an  earthquake, 
the  ground  opened  in  the  form  of  a  wide  fissure,  which 
ran  towards  this  town,  with  a  tremendous  noise,  accompa- 
nied with  the  discharge  of  pumice  stones,  blocks  of  lava, 
and  ashes.  At  the  same  time  a  gulf,  of  considerable  ex- 
tent, opened  in  the  suburbs  of  the  town,  by  which  many 
houses  were  swallowed  up.  The  sea  also  retired,  leaving 
its  bed  naked  along  the  shore. 

The  fissure  which  had  reached  the  town,  continued  to 
discharge  volcanic  matter  for  36  hours,  during  which  time, 
its  quantity  was  such  as  to  form  the  mountain  in  question. 

Fig.  9. 


The  annexed  drawing,  fig.  9,  will  show  the  form  of  this 
mountain.  No.  1,  the  mountain.  No.  2,  a  part  of  the  cra- 
ter. Its  height  has  been  lately  determined  to  be  four  hun- 
dred and  forty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  bay  of  Naples. 
Its  base  is  eight  thousand  feet,  or  nearly  a  mile  and  a  half 
in  circumference,  and  the  depth  of  the  crater,  four  hun- 
dred and  twenty-one  feet  from  the  summit,  so  that  the  bot- 
tom of  the  crater  is  only  nineteen  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea. 

No  lava  flowed  from  this  crater,  but  the  matter  ejected, 
which  fell  down  and  formed  the  mountain,  consisted  of 
masses  of  ancient  lava,  ashes,  pumice,  and  slaty  stones. 
These  blocks  of  ancient  lava,  prove  the  volcanic  origin  of 
the  ground  below  the  present  mountain. 

We  have  thus  given  such  an  account  of  volcanoes,  earth- 
quakes, and  the  elevation  of  islands  and  land,  by  subterra- 
nean fire,  as  our  limits  will  allow. 


TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER  8ERAPIS. 


127 


The  design  of  these  facts,  is  not  merely  to  satisfy  the 
curiosity  of  the  reader,  but,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  sequel,  to 
account  for  phenomena  which  the  earth  presents,  by  show- 
ing an  analogy  between  the  effects  of  known  and  unknown 
causes.  Thus,  the  earth  almost  everywhere  indicates,  by 
the  position  of  its  strata,  that  its  crust  has  been  disturbed 
by  subterranean  forces ;  and  marine  remains  show  that  a 
great  proportion  of  the  dry  land  has  once  been  under  the 
sea.  That  these  changes  have  been  effected  by  the  same 
cause  which  elevates  islands  from  the  sea,  at  the  present 
day,  we  shall  endeavor  to  show  in  another  place. 

Temple  of  Jupiter  Serapis  In  a  few  instances,  it  is 
known  that  portions  of  land  have  several  times  changed 
their  level,  with  respect  to  that  of  the  sea ;  and  of  which 
the  following  is  an  interesting  and  curious  example. 

The  temple  of  Serapis,  a  celebrated  monument  of  an- 
tiquity, is  situated  on  the  little  bay,  called  Baise,  within  the 
bay  of  Naples. 

A  geological  examination  of  the  coast  of  Puzzuoli,  along 
this  bay,  shows  that  the  land  has  been  elevated  about 
twenty  feet,  at  a  period  not  very  remote,  so  that,  without  the 
evidence  presented  by  the  temple,  there  is  sufficient  proof 
that  the  land  in  the  vicinity  has  changed  its  level. 

If  the  coast  along  the  shore,  between  Naples  and  Puz- 
zuoli, be  examined,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  tract  of  fertile 
land  which  intervenes  between  the  present  shore,  and  the 
high,  rocky  cliffs,  was  evidently  once  under  the  water,  and 
that  the  ancient  shore  was  near  these  cliffs. 


Fig.  10. 


The  inland  cliff  near  Puzzuoli,  is  in  many  places  about 
eighty  feet  high,  and  quite  perpendicular.  At  its  base,  the 
new  deposite  attains  the  height  of  twenty  feet  above  the 
sea.  This  consists  of  sedimentary  matter,  mixed  with  ma- 
rine shells,  showing  that  it  was  formed  under  the  water. 


128  TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER  8ERAPI8. 

The  annexed  cut,  fig.  10,  from  Mr.  Lyell,  will  explain 
the  situation  of  this  coast  in  1828.  a,  on  the  right,  shows 
the  situation  of  antiquities,  on  a  hill  south  of  Puzzuoli ;  b, 
ancient  cliff*,  now  inland ;  c,  terrace  composed  of  marine 
deposites  of  recent  date,  a,  on  the  left,  represents  the  re- 
mains of  Cicero's  villa,  at  the  north  of  Puzzuoli ;  b,  an- 
cient cliff)  now  inland  ;  c,  terrace  composed  of  recent  ma- 
rine deposites ;  d,  temple  of  Serapis. 

The  soil  of  these  level  deposites  is  considered  so  valua- 
ble, that  a  wall  has  been  built  for  its  protection  against  the 
washing  of  the  sea ;  but,  in  some  places,  the  wall  has  been 
thrown  down,  so  that  the  strata  are  exposed.  These  con- 
sist of  alternate  layers  of  mud  and  pumice,  enclosing 
abundance  of  marine  shells.  One  stratum  contains  large 
quantities  of  the  remains  of  ancient  art,  as  tiles,  and  pieces 
of  Mosaic  pavement.* 

The  remains  of  the  works  of  art  are  found  below,  as 
well  as  above  the  marine  shells.  Among  the  shells  are 
the  Cardium,  Donax,  Buccinum,  and  Ostrea.  (These  will 
be  found,  figured  and  described,  towards  the  close  of  this 
volume.) 

Now,  there  are  no  tides  in  the  Mediterranean,  by  which 
these  shells  could  have  been  cast  upon  the  shore ;  and  the 
remains  of  ancient  buildings  at  other  places,  show  that 
there  has  been  no  change  in  the  level  of  this  sea,  for  the 
last  two  thousand  years ;  hence,  we  must  conclude,  that  the 
land  along  this  coast  has  been  elevated  about  twenty  feet 
above  its  former  level. 

But  in  addition  to  the  above  evidence,  the  remains  of 
the  temple  of  Serapis  show  that  the  edifice  has  under- 
gone several  changes  of  level,  when  compared  with  the 
sea. 

With  respect  to  this  temple,  Mr.  Lyell,  who  has  lately 
visited  the  spot,  says,  "  It  appears,  from  the  most  authen- 
tic accounts,  that  the  three  pillars,  now  standing  erect, 
continued  down  to  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  half 
buried  in  the  new  marine  strata  above  described.  The 
upper  parts  of  the  columns  being  concealed  by  bushes, 

*  Ancient  Mosaic  pavement  consists  of  small  pieces  of  stone,  gen- 
erally marble,  of  different  colors,  arranged  in  figures,  sometimes 
representing  groups  of  men  and  animals,  in  commemoration  of 
some  historical  event.  These  are  cemented  so  as  to  form  a  con- 
tinuous solid  mass.  The  floors  of  ancient  churches  and  temples 
were  often  thus  made. 


TEMPLE    OF    JUPITER    SERAPIS. 


129 


had  not  been  discovered,  until  1 750,  when  they  were  seen 
to  form  part  of  a  splendid  edifice.  On  examination,  the 
pavement  was  found  still  entire,  and  upon  it  lay  a  number 
of  magnificent  columns,  a  part  of  which  were  of  African 
breccia,*  and  a  part  of  granite.  The  original  plan  of  the 
building  could  be  traced  distinctly :  it  was  of  a  quadran- 
gular form,  seventy  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  roof  had 
been  supported  by  forty-six  noble  columns,  twenty-four  of 
which  were  of  granite,  and  the  rest  of  brecciated  marble. 
The  large  court  had  been  surrounded  by  apartments,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  used  as  bathing  rooms ;  for  a  thermal 
spring,  still  employed  for  medicinal  purposes,  continues 
to  flow  from  just  behind  the  ruins,  and  the  water  of  this 
spring,  it  is  said,  was  conveyed  to  the  chambers  by  mar- 
ble conductors." — Lyell,  vol.  i.  p.  453. 

Since  the  discovery  of  these  remains,  many  antiquaries 
have  entered  into  elaborate  discussions,  on  the  question 
to  what  deity  this  edifice  was  consecrated ;  but  from  its 
situation  and  construction,  there  is  more  reason  to  suppose 
that  it  was  a  bathing  house,  than  a  heathen  temple. 

But  our  object  will  be  to  show  what  geological  changes 
these  antiquities  indicate. 

Fig.  11.  The  annexed  cut,  fig.  11, 

represents  Serapis,  as  it  now 
appears,  reduced  from  the 
drawing  of  Mr.  Lyell.  These 
pillars  are  forty-two  feet  in 
height,  and  their  surfaces  are 
smooth  and  entire  to  the 
height  of  about  twelve  feet 
above  the  pedestal,the  reason 
of  which  will  appear  direct- 
ly. Above  this,  is  a  zone, 
twelve  feet  in  length,  where 
the  marble  has  been  pierced 
by  a  marine  perforating 
shell  fish,  called  by  Cuvier, 
Lithodomus.  It  is  a  species  of  the  Mytilus  of  Linnaeus 
and  the  Modiola  of  Lamarck. 


*  Breccia  is  a  rock  composed  of  broken,  angular  pieces  of  stone, 
generally  of  various  colors,  cemented  by  the  band  of  nature.  The 
pillars  of  the  capitol,  at  Washington,  are  of  this  kind  of  marble. 


ISO  TEMPLE    OF    JUPITER    SERAPIS. 

These  animals  enter  the  stone  by  a  small  orifice,  which 
they  make  themselves  when  quite  young,  and  as  they  in- 
crease in  size  they  enlarge  their  habitations  in  proportion. 
They  are  nourished  by  the  sea  water,  which  is  admitted 
through  the  small  aperture.  These  animals  have  not  the 
power,  or  perhaps  inclination,  to  leave  their  cells ;  hence 
their  houses,  during  life,  become  their  tombs  at  death. 

The  limestones  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  are 
frequently  full  of  the  excavations  of  these  animals.  The 
genus  Pholas,  also  contains  some  species  which  penetrate 
rocks.  Both  are  figured  under  the  articles  "  Multivalves" 
and  "Bivalves,"  towards  the  end  of  this  volume.  These 
animals  cannot  pierce  silicious  rocks,  such  as  granite. 

As  these  animals  cannot  live,  except  when  immersed  in 
salt  water,  we  must  infer  that  these  pillars  were  for  a  long 
time  submerged,  and  that,  during  part  of  that  period,  their 
lower  portions  were  covered  up  by  the  rubbish  already 
mentioned,  while  their  upper  ends  reached  above  the 
water.  This  accounts  for  the  reason  why  their  middle 
portions  only,  are  perforated  by  these  animals.  On  the 
pavement  of  the  temple  lie  several  columns,  broken  in 
pieces.  These  are  perforated  on  their  fractured  ends,  as 
well  as  on  other  parts,  showing  that  they  had  lain  under 
water  for  a  long  time  after  they  were  broken. 

The  platform  of  the  temple  is  at  present  just  under  the 
water,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  perforations  on  the 
standing  columns  is  at  least  twenty-three  feet  above  the 
water,  from  which  it  is  clear  that  these  columns  must 
have  continued  for  a  long  time  immersed  in  the  water, 
while  in  an  erect  position,  after  which  they  must  have  been 
raised,  by  the  rising  of  the  ground,  to  their  present 
elevation. 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  temple  of  Serapis  was  first  de- 
pressed by  the  sinking  down  of  the  ground  where  it 
stands,  so  that  the  water  of  the  sea  surrounded  these  pil- 
lars about  twenty  feet  above  its  present  level ;  after  which 
it  was  again  raised  to  its  present  situation,  by  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  coast.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say,  that  the 
cause  of  these  changes,  was  undoubtedly  the  same  which 
has  produced  the  elevation  of  islands,  and  the  sinking 
down  of  the  ground  in  other  places. 


VOLCANOES.  131 


SEAT  AND  THEORY  OF  VOLCANOES. 

It  was  formerly  believed  that  the  seat  of  volcanoes  was 
superficial,  and  that  the  heat  which  fused  the  rocks,  and 
sent  them  forth  in  the  form  of  lava  from  the  mouths  of 
volcanoes,  was  owing  to  the  combustion  of  mineral  coal. 
It  is  a  sufficient  refutation  of  this  hypothesis,  that  were  the 
whole  interior  of  the  earth  composed  of  coal,  it  must  have 
long  since  been  exhausted  in  the  vicinity  of  ancient  burn- 
ing mountains.  Also,  that  no  geologist  ever  supposed 
coal  to  exist  below  granite  mountains,  which  are  often 
pierced  by  volcanic  apertures. 

The  cause  of  volcanoes  has  also  been  attributed  to  the 
spontaneous  ignition  of  pyrites,  or  metallic  sulphurets. 

With  respect  to  this  theory,  in  the  first  place,  there  is 
no  evidence  that  the  interior  of  the  earth  is  composed  of 
the  sulphurets  of  the  metals,  nor  is  this  in  the  least  degree 
probable ;  and  second,  were  this  ascertained  to  be  the  case, 
and  could  the  theorist  contrive  to  perpetuate  its  ignition, 
or  to  make  it  occasional,  as  circumstances  required,  still  it 
would  fail  to  account  for  the  phenomena  of  earthquakes 
and  volcanoes.  But  lastly,  the  products  of  volcanoes  are 
not  such  as  would  result  from  the  ignition  of  the  sulphurets 
of  the  metals.  This  is  sufficient. 

Since  the  great  discovery  of  Sir  H.  Davy,  that  the  earths 
and  alkalies  are  the  oxides  of  metallic  substances,  it  has 
been  proposed  to  account  for  volcanoes  and  earthquakes, 
by  the  admission  of  water  to  these  metallic  elements. 

This  theory  may  be  thus  stated.  If  pure  potash  or 
soda  be  deprived  of  its  oxygen,  there  remains  a  brilliant 
silver-white  metal,  so  light  as  to  swim  on  the  surface  of 
water. 

These  metals  have  an  affinity  of  oxygen  so  strong,  that 
when  thrown  on  water,  the  fluid  is  decomposed,  the  oxy- 
gen being  absorbed  by  the  metal  so  rapidly  as  to  occasion 
a  degree  of  heat,  which  sets  the  hydrogen  on  fire.  Thus 
by  throwing  these  metals  on  water,  combustion  is  excited, 
and  the  oxides  of  potassium,  and  sodium,  or  in  other  words, 
pure  potash  or  soda  is  formed. 

Now  if  we  suppose  that  at  the  creation,  the  elements  of 
things  were  formed  in  a  distinct  and  separate  state,  and  that 
the  condition  of  the  earth's  surface  at  the  present  time  is 
owing  to  the  exercise  of  chemical  affinities,  then  we  might 


132  SEAT    ANJ)    THEORY    OF    VOLCANOES. 

consider  the  imerior  of  the  earth,  at  the  present  time,  to 
be  composed  of  elements  in  their  simple  and  uncon'ibincd 
state.  This  being  admitted,  the  earth  at  a  certain  depth 
consists  of  the  bases  of  these  earths,  and  alkalies  in  their 
uncombined  and  metallic  forms ;  for,  being-  excluded  from 
any  substance  containing  oxygen,  there  has  been  no  op- 
portunity since  the  creation,  for  these  substances  to  com- 
bine and  form  compounds.  It  is  well  known  to  chemists, 
that  the  metallic  bases  of  the  alkalies  may  be  kept  in  their 
elementary  state  for  any  length  of  time,  by  excluding 
them  from  the  air,  or  by  immersing  them  in  naptha,  a 
substance  containing  no  oxygen.  Hence,  as  combustion 
is  excited  when  these  metallic  bases  come  in  contact  with 
water,  (if  the  above  suppositions  be  true,)  there  exists  an 
analogy,  by  which  it  has  been  thought  the  phenomena  of 
earthquakes  might  be  accounted  for,  by  the  admission  of 
water  to  these  substances. 

There  are,  however,  insuperable  difficulties  in  this  hy- 
pothesis. Carbonate  of  lime  is  one  of  the  most  abundant 
materials  of  which  the  crust  of  our  earth  is  composed. 
This,  in  the  opinions  of  many  geologists,  had  its  origin  in 
organized  remains,  being  the  product  of  sea  shells,  consol- 
idated in  a  manner,  which  it  is  unnecessary  here  to  ex- 
plain. It  is  quite  certain  that  a  great  portion  of  limestone 
is  really  the  product  of  moluscous  animals,  of  which  the 
coral  reefs,  and  the  mountains  of  shells,  are  a  sufficient 
proof.  If,  therefore,  lime  is  the  product  of  organized  be- 
ings, it  was  not  created  in  an  elementary  form,  and  there- 
fore cannot  produce  the  fire  of  volcanoes  by  the  union  of 
its  elements,  though  calcium,  its  base,  may  excite  flame  by 
contact  with  water. 

Silex,  or  flint,  another  substance  which  enters  largely 
into  the  •composition  of  the  earth,  and  of  which  the  primi- 
tive rocks  are  chiefly  composed,  does  not  possess  an  in- 
flammable base,  and  therefore  cannot  be  supposed  to  par- 
ticipate in  causing  any  igneous  phenomena. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  earth,  also,  being  at  least 
five  times  that  of  water,  shows  that  it  is  not  composed, 
principally,  of  substances  lighter  than  that  fluid. 

Besides,  the  phenomena  of  earthquakes  and  volcanoes, 
even  admitting  the  interior  of  the  earth  to  be  composed  of 
metallic  elements,  are  not  such  as  could  be  accounted  for 
by  the  admission  of  water  to  these  substances  ;  nor  are  the 
products  of  volcanic  action,  in  the  form  of  lava,  pumice, 


I 

SEAT    AND    THEORY    OF    VOLCANOES.  133 

and  ashes,  such  as  would  result  from  the  oxygentation  of 
metallic  elements.  This  theory,  therefore,  has  not  even 
plausibility  in  its  favor. 

In  the  present  state  of  geological  knowledge,  it  is  not  to 
be  expected  that  any  theory  which  can  be  proposed,  will 
account  for  every  circumstance  connected  with  earthquakes 
and  volcanoes.  But  that  which  explains  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  these  phenomena,  is  founded  on  the  hypothesis  of  a 
"central  fire,"  that  is,  a  mass,  or  masses  of  lava,  or  melted 
matter,  deeply  seated  towards  the  centre  of  the  earth.  The 
two  hundred  volcanoes,  existing  in  different  parts  of  the 
globe,  are  the  chimneys,  or  occasional  outlets  of  this  ocean 
of  liquid  fire. 

When  this  mass  is  disturbed,  as  by  the  admission  of 
water,  an  earthquake  is  the  consequence,  and  this  becomes 
more  or  less  disastrous,  according  to  the  degree  of  internal 
commotion.  When  the  pressure  of  the  steam,  into  which 
the  water  is  converted,  becomes  excessive,  then  the  lava  is 
forced  up  one  of  the  chimneys,  and  poured  forth  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  and  thus  a  volcano  is  produced,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  internal  pressure  is  relieved. 

The  hypothesis  of  a  central  fire,  under  various  modifica- 
tions, appears  to  be  the  prevailing  doctrine  of  the  geolo- 
gists of  the  present  day.  "  If,"  says  Mr.  Lyell,  "  we  sup- 
pose a  great  number  of  large  subterranean  cavities,  at  the 
depth  of  several  miles  below  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
wherein  melted  lava  accumulates,  and  that  water,  penetra- 
ting into  these,  is  converted  into  steam  ;  this  steam,  together 
with  the  gases  generated  by  the  decomposition  of  melted 
rocks,  may  press  upon  the  lava,  and  force  it  up  the  duct  of 
a  volcano,  in  the  same  manner  as  it  drives  water  up  the  pipe 
of  a  geyser.  (The  geyser  is  described  under  '  Silicious 
Springs.')  But  the  weight  of  the  lava  being  immense, 
the  hydrostatic  pressure,  exerted  on  the  sides  and  roofs  of 
such  large  cavities,  and  fissures,  may  well  be  supposed  to 
occasion,  not  slight  tremors,  such  as  agitate  the  ground  be- 
fore an  eruption  of  the  geyser,  but  violent  earthquakes. 
Sometimes  the  lateral  pressure  of  the  lower  extremity  of 
the  high  column  of  lava,  may  cause  the  more  yielding  stra- 
ta to  give  way,  and  to  fold  themselves  into  numerous  con- 
volutions, so  as  to  occupy  less  space,  and  thereby  give  re- 
lief, for  a  time,  to  the  fused,  and  dilated  matter.  Some- 
times, on  the  contrary,  a  weight  equal  to  that  of  the  vertical 
column  of  lava,  pressing  on  every  part  of  the  roof,  may 
12 


134  SEAT    AND    THEORY    Of    VOLCANOES. 

neave  up  the  superincumbent  mass,  and  force  lava  into 
every  fissure,  which,  on  consolidating,  may  support  the 
arch,  and  cause  the  land  above  to  be  permanently  elevated. 
On  the  other  hand,  subsidences  may  follow  the  condensa- 
tion of  vapor,  when  cold  water  descends  through  fissures, 
or  when  heat  is  lost  by  the  cooling  of  the  lava." 

If  this  globe,  towards  its  centre,  is  composed  of  an  igne- 
ous fluid,  then  we  might  expect  that  the  nearer  we  approach 
it,  or  the  deeper  we  descend  below  the  surface,  the  higher 
we  should  find  the  temperature,  and  many  experiments  tend 
to  prove  that  this  is  actually  the  case. 

Baron  Fourier,  who  has  investigated  this  subject  with 
much  attention,  concludes,  "that  the  rays  of  the  sun  pene- 
trate the  globe,  and  occasion  annual  and  diurnal  variations 
in  its  temperature,  but  that  these  periodical  changes  cease 
to  be  perceptible  at  a  certain  depth  under  the  surface.  Be- 
low that  depth,  the  temperature  caused  by  the  sun  has  long 
ceased  to  have  any  influence.  If,  therefore,  it  is  found  that 
the  temperature  of  the  deep  recesses  of  the  earth  become 
perceptibly  greater,  in  proportion  as  we  recede  from  its  sur- 
face, it  is  impossible  to  ascribe  this  increase  to  the  influence 
of  the  sun,  and  consequently  it  can  proceed  only  from  the 
primitive  heat  of  the  earth,  and  with  which  it  was  origin- 
ally endued.  It  has  long  since  been  conjectured  that  the 
heat  of  the  earth  increased  in  some  proportion  to  the  dis- 
tance of  descent  from  its  surface;  but  it  is  only  within  a 
short  period,  that  experiments  have  teen  instituted,  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  this  conjecture  was  well 
founded,  and  if  so,  to  determine  the  ratio  of  increase.  With 
this  view,  many  mines  have  been  accurately  examined,  and 
the  fact  of  a  gradual  increase  of  temperature  do wn wards, 
has  been  found  general. 

In  the  mines  of  Cornwall,  England,  Capt.  Lean  made 
the  following  experiments  and  observations,  in  the  month 
of  December. 

At  the  surface,  the  temperature  of  the  air  was  50°  Fah- 
renheit. At  120  feet  below  the  surface,  the  air  was  57°. 
At  600  feet  below,  temperature  of  the  air  66°,  of  water  64°. 
At  962  feet  below,  air  70°,  do.  water  74°.  At  1200  feet 
below  the  surface,  air  78°,  water  do.  78°. 

These,  with  other  experiments  in  different  mines, 
seemed  to  show  that  the  increase  of  temperature  down- 
wards was  nearly  in  the  ratio  of  one  degree,  for  every  sixty- 
five  feet. 


SEAT  AND  THEORY  OF  VOLCANOES.  135 

M.  Cordier,  who  has  written  a  treatise  on  this 
subject,  we  learn  that  the  number  of  mines  in  which  ex- 
periments have  been  made  is  about  forty.  These  mines 
are  situated  in  France,  England,  Switzerland,  Peru,  Sax- 
ony, and  Mexico.  The  whole  number  of  experiments 
made  are  about  300,  some  being  on  the  air  of  the  mines, 
some  on  the  water,  and  others  upon  the  rocks,  or  earth. 

From  all  these  observations,  made  apparently  with  such 
caution  as  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  any  considerable  er- 
ror, M.  Cordier  derives  the  following  conclusions. 

1.  "If  we  reject  a  certain  number  of  observations  as 
uncertain,  all  the  rest  indicate,  in  a  manner  more  or  less 
certain,  that  there  exists  a  remarkable  increase  of  temper- 
ature, as  we  descend  from  the  surface  of  the  earth  towards 
the  interior.    It  is  reasonable,  then,  to  admit  this  increase. 

2.  "  The   results  collected  at  the  observatory  at  Paris, 
are  the  only  ones  that  can  be  depended  upon  with  certainty, 
for  obtaining  a  numerical  expression  of  the  law  of  this  in- 
crease.    This  expression  gives  fifty-one  feet  as  the  depth 
which  corresponds  to  an  increase  of  one  degree,  in  the 
subterranean   temperature.     And   we   would   remark,   in 
passing,  that,  according  to  this  result,  the  temperature  of 
boiling  water,  under  the  city  of  Paris,  would   be  at  the 
depth  of  8,212  feet,  or  about  a  mile  and  a  half. 

3.  "  Among  all  the  other  results,  a  small  number  only 
afford  numerical  expressions  of  the  law  sought  for,  suffi- 
ciently approximate,  to  be  taken  into  account.     These  ex- 
pressions vary  from    104  to  twenty-four  feet  for  one  de- 
gree of  increase  |  their  average,  in  general,  indicates  an 
increase  more  rapid   than  has  generally  been   admitted. 
Their  average  has  so  much  the  more  weight,  as  embra- 
cing the  results  of  many  series  of  long  continued  observa- 
tions. 

4.  "  Lastly,  in  grouping  together,  by  countries,  all  the 
results,  admissible  on  any  principle,  I  am  led  to  present  a 
new  and  important  idea,  to  wit,  that  the  difference  between 
the  results  collected  at  different  places,  are  referable  not 
solely  to  the  imperfection  of  the  experiments,  but  also  to  a 
certain  irregularity  in  the  distribution  of  subterranean  heat 
in  different  countries." 

M.  Cordier  describes  at  length,  the  manner  of  making 
experiments  on  this  subject,  in  order  to  prevent  local  errors, 
and  from  all  that  himself  and  others  have  done  and  writ- 
ten, he  draws  the  following  inferences. 


* 

136  SEAT  AND  THEORY  OF  VOLCANOES. 

1 .  "  Our  experiments  fully  prove  the  existence  of  an  in- 
ternal heat,  which  is  natural  to  the  terrestrial  globe;  which 
depends  not  on  the  influence  of  the  sun,  and  which  in- 
creases rapidly  with  the  depth. 

2.  "  The  increase  of  subterranean  heat  in  proportion  to 
the  depth,  does  not  follow  the  same  law  throughout  the 
globe.     It  may  be  twice,  or  even  thrice  as  great  in  one 
country  as  in  another. 

3.  "  These  differences  are  not  in  a  constant  ratio  to  the 
latitude  or  longitude. 

4.  "  Finally,  the  increase  is  certainly  much  more  rapid 
than  has  heretofore  been  supposed ;   it  may  be  as  great  as 
twenty-seven,  or  even  twenty-four  feet  for  a  degree,  in  some 
countries.     Provisionally,  however,  the  mean  must  not  be 
put  lower  down  than  forty-six  feet." 

We  must  therefore  consider  it  as  proved  beyond  all 
doubt,  that,  below  the  crust  of  the  earth,  there  exists  either 
a  mass  of  burning  lava,  or  some  other  cause,  by  which 
there  is  perpetually  maintained  a  considerable  degree  of 
heat ;  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  a  very  high  tem- 
perature exists  towards  its  centre. 

That  the  internal  temperature  is  caused  by  a  melted 
mass,  such  as  we  have  supposed  to  exist,  is  not,  it  is  be- 
lieved, incompatible  with  any  known  phenomenon,  but,  on 
the  contrary,  certainly  accords  with  many  of  the  effects  al- 
ready specified. 

But  there  are  other  effects  which  are  unaccountable,  ex- 
cept on  such  a  hypothesis;  and  one  of  these  is  the  connex- 
ion, which  has  often  been  observed  to  exist,  between  one 
volcano  and  another,  and  also  between  earthquakes  and 
volcanoes.  If  there  exists  in  the  earth  an  extensive  ig- 
neous fluid,  communicating  with  the  open  air  only  by 
means  of  volcanic  apertures,  we  should  expect,  that  when 
this  fluid  by  any  means  was  set  in  motion,  the  surface  of 
the  ground  would  partake  of  such  motion,  and  that  in  case 
this  fluid  should  be  pressed  for  want  of  room,  it  would  be 
forced  out  at  these  apertures. 

Now,  the  wave-like  motion  of  earthquakes  is  a  phenom- 
enon almost  universally  observed,  and  even  where  the 
shock  is  slight,  it  produces  nausea,  like  sea-sickness.  This 
motion  is  inexplicable,  if  the  earth  is  composed  of  solid 
unyielding  strata ;  but  if  we  suppose  its  crust  rests  upon 
a  fluid,  liable  to  agitation,  the  solution  becomes  natural 
and  easy.  This  motion  may  be  strikingly  illustrated  by 


SEAT    AND    THEORY    OF    VOLCANOES.  137 

covering  a  dish  of  quicksilver  with  sand  or  soil,  and  then 
giving  the  vessel  a  slight  agitation. 

The  connexion  between  volcanoes  and  earthquakes  has 
been  so  generally  observed,  that  no  one  at  the  present 
day  denies  that  their  causes  must  be  the  same.  Earth- 
quakes precede  volcanoes,  and  when  a  wave  of  the  lava 
reaches  an  aperture,  there  happens  an  eruption,  and  the 
earthquakes  are  diminished  in  force,  or  cease  entirely, 
because  the  internal  pressure  is  thus  relieved. 

In  proof  of  this  connexion,  the  elevation  of  all  new 
islands,  and  the  formation  of  all  new  volcanoes,  and  most 
commonly  the  eruptions  of  old  ones,  are  preceded  by,  or 
accompanied  with  earthquakes,  especially  where  the  latter 
have  some  time  lain  dormant.  The  elevation  of  Sabrina, 
of 'the  Aleutian  Island,  of  Monte  Nuovo,  and  the  forma- 
tion of  Jurullo,  together  with  what  is  generally  known  of 
Vesuvius  and  Etna,  are  examples. 

It  is  true  that,  in  some  instances,  earthquakes  happen, 
both  at  great  distances  from  volcanoes,  and  in  their  vicini- 
ties, without  any  eruption.  But,  when  this  is  the  case, 
the  most  calamitous  consequences  are  produced,  because 
the  confined  matter  which  causes  the  earthquakes  cannot 
escape.  This  was  the  case,  as  already  noticed,  with  re- 
spect to  the  earthquakes  of  Calabria,  which  destroyed 
60,000  people,  there  being  no  eruption  either  of  Etna  or 
Vesuvius  It  is  probable  that  this  was  prevented  by  the 
masses  of  cooled  lava,  by  which  these  apertures  were 
clogged.  The  great  earthquake  of  Lisbon  was  also  un- 
attended by  volcanic  eruptions. 

When  the  shocks  commenced,  which  ended  in  the  ele- 
vation of  Monte  Nuovo,  it  was  expected,  of  course,  that  an 
eruption  of  Vesuvius  would  ensue,  but  instead  of  this, 
after  the  earthquake  had  continued  with  great  force  for 
twenty-four  hours,  the  earth  opened  with  a  tremendous 
noise,  and,  throwing  out  blocks  of  lava,  pumice,  and  ashes, 
formed  that  mountain  in  1538.  Vesuvius,  with  a  single 
slight  exception,  had  remained  dormant  from  1306,  and 
showed  no  signs  of  commotion  during  the  elevation  of 
Monte  Nuovo.  Now,  had  there  been  less  resistance  at 
the  crater  of  Vesuvius,  than  there  was  on  the  plain,  there 
would  have  been  an  eruption,  and  no  new  mountain 
would  have  been  formed.  But  Vesuvius  continued  torpid 
until  1631,  during  which  period  Etna  was  peculiarly  ac- 
tive, suffering  frequent  and  terrible  eruptions.  This  cir< 
12* 


138  SEAT    AND    THEORY    OF    VOLCANOES. 

cumstance  affords  a  strong  argument  in  favor  of  a  sub- 
terranean communication  between  these  two  mountains, 
Etna  occasionally  serving  as  an  outlet  for  the  elastic  fluids 
and  lava,  a  part  of  which  would  otherwise  be  emitted  at 
Vesuvius,  and,  perhaps,  the  latter,  in  its  turn,  answering 
the  same  purpose  during  the  torpid  state  of  the  former. 

Again,  the  earthquake  of  Lisbon,  as  already  stated,  was 
felt  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  also  in  Africa  and  South 
America,  as  well  as  by  ships  sailing  in  the  intermediate 
seas.  Now  it  cannot  be  reasonably  supposed,  that  a  sub- 
terranean convulsion  could  be  communicated  by  the  mere 
vibration  of  the  earth,  to  the  distance  of  so  many  thou- 
sand miles,  and  especially  from  one  side  of  the  Atlantic 
to  the  other,  under  the  ocean.  If  there  existed  no  other 
evidence  than  this,  of  an  interior  fluctuating  medium  be- 
low the  crust  of  the  earth,  it  would  be  more  philosophical, 
as  well  as  reasonable,  to  infer  that  such  a  one  did  exist, 
than  to  believe  that  the  earth  was  capable  of  transmitting 
a  vibratory  motion,  however  strong,  to  the  distance  of  one 
fourth  of  its  circumference. 

Finally,  another  proof  of  the  existence  of  an  immense 
mass  of  igneous  matter  under  the  surface  of  the  earth,  is 
the  quantity  of  lava  emitted  by  some  volcanoes.  Many 
instances  might  be  adduced,  but  we  will  here  only  refer  to 
that  of  Skaptar  Jokul,  in  1783,  an  account  of  which  has 
been  given.  There  the  quantity  of  lava  covered  a  sur- 
face equal  to  ninety  miles  long,  and  twenty  broad,  making 
an  area  equal  to  1800  square  miles.  The  depth  or  thick- 
ness was  generally  about  100  feet;  but,  in  some  places,  to 
a  considerable  extent,  600  feet  deep.  Perhaps,  therefore, 
it  would  not  be  an  over  estimate  to  call  the  average  depth 
150  feet.  This  quantity,  if  consolidated,  would,  by  calcu- 
lation, have  formed  a  massive  globe  of  about  six  miles  in 
diameter. 

Now  if  the  matter  of  this  eruption  came  from  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  the  mountain,  it  is  plain  that  the  strata 
under  it,  for  six  miles  in  extent,  must  have  been  thrown 
upon  the  surface,  and  a  cavity  produced  of  a  proportionate 
size ;  but  this  is  highly  improbable,  if  not  absolutely  im- 
possible, from  the  very  nature  of  the  case,  because  if  we 
suppose  a  cavity,  or  definite  space,  whence  the  lava  pro- 
ceeded, we  must  also  suppose  it  constantly  full  of  igneous 
matter,  at  least  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  aperture, 
otherwise  it  would  not  have  flowed  from  the  crater.  For, 


ELEVATION    OF   CONTINENTS.  139 

we  cannot  believe  that  in  a  cavity  of  such  dimensions, 
steam,  or  any  other  elastic  body  could  have  operated  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  throw  out  all,  or  the  greatest  part  of 
its  contents. 

From  all  we  have  adduced  on  this  subject,  we  cannot 
but  conclude,  that  the  phenomena  of  earthquakes  and  vol- 
canoes, indicate  the  existence  of  an  ocean  of  melted  lava, 
constantly  existing  at  an  unknown  depth  under  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  and  that  these  phenomena  may,  in  most  of 
their  varieties,  be  accounted  for  by  such  a  hypothesis,  and 
by  no  other  which  has  vet  been  proposed.  It  is,  therefore, 
reasonable  to  infer  that  such  a  mass  of  igneous  matter  does 
actually  exist. 


ELEVATION  OF  CONTINENTS  FROM  THE  SEA. 

The  occurrence  of  sea  shells,  and  the  remains  of  marine 
animals,  at  a  distance  from  any  existing  ocean,  is  a  fact  of 
common  observation.  Some  of  these  remains  are  deeply 
buried  in  solid  strata,  while  others  are  found  in  alluvia 
near  the  surface.  We  have  noticed  in  the  preliminary 
part  of  this  work,  that  such  remains  excited  the  attention 
of  the  earliest  geological  observers,  and  that  for  want  of  a 
more  philosophical  mode  of  accounting  for  these  pheno- 
mena, they  were  then  considered,  not  real  shells,  but  the 
products  of  plastic  nature. 

A  great  proportion  of  Italy  is  covered  by  an  alluvial 
soil,  containing  sea  shells,  and  occasionally  the  remains 
of  quadrupeds,  both  of  living  and  extinct  species,  such  as 
the  elephant,  hippopotamus,  rhinoceros,  mastodon,  &c.  In 
this  country,  in  the  state  of  New- York,  of  Ohio,  and  in- 
deed throughout  the  great  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  fossil 
shells  are  found;  and,  as  in  Italy,  there  occurs  also  the 
remains  of  ancient  quadrupeds. 

The  theory,  long  since  suggested,  that  the  great  lakes 
of  North  America,  are  the  deeper  beds  of  an  inland  sea, 
which  once  covered  a  great  extent  of  land,  a  part  of  which 
is  now  dry,  has  undoubtedly  many  circumstances  in  its 
favor,  and  indeed  may  be  considered  as  a  well  founded 
geological  fact.  In  this  instance,  if,  as  some  geologists 
suppose,  this  ancient  sea  has  been  drained  by  the  bursting 
of  some  barrier,  it  is  a  circumstance  which  will  account  for 


140  ELEVATION    OF    CONTINENTS. 

the  appearance  of  shells  not  situated  higher  than  the  bed 
of  the  former  sea.  But  it  is  believed  that  in  many  places, 
marine  organic  remains  are  /ound,  much  more  elevated 
than  any  reasonable  hypothesis  could  have  placed  the  bed 
of  the  former  sea.  The  situations  of  these  cannot,  there- 
fore, be  accounted  for  on  the  supposition  that  they  were 
left  by  the  retiring  waters. 

In  Italy,  besides  the  more  common  marine  remains 
of  shells  and  small  fish,  there  are  found  the  bones  of 
whales  and  dolphins,  and  sometimes  entire  skeletons 
of  these  fish  occur  at  the  elevation  of  1200  feet  above  the 
sea. 

The  bones  of  whales,  thus  found,  are  in  a  high  state  of 
preservation,  and  are  often  incrusted  with  oyster  shells,  a 
good  proof  that  they  have  not  been  transported,  and  that 
the  sea  for  a  long  time  remained  over  them,  after  they  had 
been  denuded  of  their  flesh. 

But  it  will  be  seen  by  the  following  extract  from  Cuvier, 
that  such  appearances  are  much  more  common  than  has 
been  supposed. 

"  The  lowest  and  most  level  lands,"  says  he,  "  when 
penetrated  to  a  great  depth,  exhibit  nothing  but  horizon- 
tal strata,  consisting  of  various  substances,  almost  all  of 
them  containing  innumerable  productions  of  the  sea. 
Similar  strata,  similar  productions,  compose  the  hills, 
even  to  a  great  height.  Sometimes  the  shells  are  so  nu- 
merous, that  they  form,  of  themselves,  the  entire  mass  of 
the  stratum.  They  are  almost  everywhere  so  completely 
preserved,  that  even  the  smallest  of  them  retain  their  most 
delicate  parts,  their  slenderest  processes,  and  their  finest 
points.  They  are  found  in  elevations,  above  the  level  of 
every  part  of  the  ocean,  and  in  places  to  which  the  sea 
could  not  now  be  conveyed  by  any  existing  causes.  They 
are  not  only  enveloped  in  lo'ose  sands,  but  are  incrusted 
by  the  hardest  stones,  which  they  penetrate  in  all  direc- 
tions. Every  part  of  the  world,  both  the  hemispheres,  all 
continents,  all  islands  of  any  considerable  extent,  exhibit 
the  same  phenomena.  They  have,  therefore,  lived  in  the 
sea,  and  have  been  deposited  by  the  sea ;  the  sea  there- 
fore, must  have  existed  in  the  places  where  it  has  left 
them." 

When  we  find  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  stratified 
rocks,  forming  the  summits  of  the  highest  mountains,  ele- 
vated many  thousands  of  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 


ELEVATION  OF  CONTINENTS.          141 

and  when  we  suppose  that  the  objects  we  are  contempla- 
ting, were  once  covered  by  water,  we  are  strongly  im- 
pressed with  the  changes  which  the  relative  levels  of  the 
water  and  land  must  have  undergone.  And  when  we  find 
the  remains  of  shell  fish  imbedded  in  these  strata,  we  can- 
not hesitate  to  admit  that  these  rocks  have  once  been  cov- 
ered by  the  ocean.  When,  lastly,  we  observe  that  those 
beds,  which  must  once  have  been  horizontal,  are  now  ver- 
tical ;  that  they  are  inclined,  broken,  bent,  and  dislocated 
in  innumerable  ways,  we  are  forcibly  led  to  conclude  that 
their  present  distance  from  the  sea  has  been  accompanied 
by  violent  alterations  in  the  form  of  the  surface,  and  that  it 
has  been  produced  by  the  action  of  enormous  powers. — 
JUIacculloch,  vol.  i.  p.  86. 

Allowing  that  these  strata  have  once  been  under  the 
sea,  and  which,  from  the  circumstances,  is  proved  beyond 
all  doubt  or  controversy,  the  question  to  be  examined,  is, 
whether  the  ocean  has  retired  to  a  lower  level,  or  whether 
the  land,  by  some  enormous  force,  has  not  been  elevated 
above  the  water. 

The  phenomena  of  shells  in  strata  were  once  attributed 
to  the  Mosaic  deluge,  but  we  need  not,  at  the  present  day, 
employ  arguments  to  show  the  impossibility  of  such  an  ori- 
gin. 150  days  was  too  short  a  period  to  have  produced 
such  effects. 

It  has  been  ascertained  that  some  of  the  Peruvian  moun- 
tains contain  sea  shells,  at  an  elevation  of  fourteen  thou- 
sand feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  that  the  nature  of 
the  strata  in  which  they  are  contained,  is  such  as  to  show 
that  these  mountains  must  for  a  long  period  have  been 
submerged.  Hence  it  is  plain  that  no  hypothesis  connect- 
ed with  the  deluge,  can  explain  this  fact. 

Now  if  the  sea  has  retired  in  a  gradual  manner  from 
such  a  height,  within  a  period  of  five  or  six  thousand  years, 
its  level  ought  now,  at  this  rate  of  depression,  to  be  at  least 
four  thousand  feet  lower  than  it  was  two  thousand  years 
ago,  but  facts,  with  respect  to  the  Baltic  and  the  Mediterra- 
nean, tend  to  prove,  that  since  the  Christian  era,  the  ocean 
has  not  changed  its  level,  in  any  appreciable  degree. 

There  is,  therefore,  not  the  least  probability,  or  even  pos- 
sibility, that  marine  organic  remains  situated  above  the 
sea,  or  imbedded  in  strata  at  a  distance  from  it,  can  be  ac- 
counted for  by  any  supposition  connected  with  the  depres- 
sion of  the  inters  of  the  ocean. 


£»':  ELEVATION  OF  CONTINENTS. 

If  now  we  examine  the  facts  and  arguments  tending  to 
show  that  the  land  has  been  thrown  up  from  the  bottom  of 
the  sea,  we  shall  find  that  the  evidence  amounts  to  little 
less  than  absolute  demonstration  that  this  has  been  the 
case. 

In  the  first  place,  strata  composed  of  fragments  of  rocks 
of  any  considerable  size  will  take  the  horizontal  direction. 
It  is  true  that  deposites  of  fine  matter,  as  clay,  and  sand, 
from  water,  will  at  first  take  the  impression,  or  form  of  the 
bottom  when  this  is  uneven,,  but  if  the  strata  be  of  any 
considerable  thickness,  the  layers  will  assume  a  horizon- 
tal level.  But  we  shall  find,  on  examination,  that  very 
few  stratified  rocks  in  any  part  of  the  world,  have  pre- 
served their  coincidence  with  the  horizon.  On  the  contra- 
ry, they  are  inclined  at  various  angles,  and  are  sometimes 
even  quite  vertical ;  clearly  evincing  that  they  have  been 
disturbed,  and  dislocated  by  some  violence,  since  their  for- 
mation. 

"If,"  says  Dr.  Macculloch,  "the  highly  inclined  posi- 
tion of  strata  were  not  itself  a  proof  of  their  elevation,  evi 
dences  of  motion  are  found  in  a  great  number  of  phenom- 
ena. In  their  curvatures  we  find  proofs  of  disturbance  ; 
we  find  even  more  decided  evidence  to  the  same  purpose 
in  their  fractures.  But  when  we  see  that  these  fractures 
are  accompanied  by  a  separation  of  parts  whirh  were  once 
continuous,  that  one  portion  of  a  stratum  occupies  a  higher 
or  lower  place  than  another,  and  that  this  separation  is  oft- 
en attended  by  a  difference  in  the  angle  of  inclination  of  the 
separated  parts,  we  have  every  proof  that  can  be  desired,  of 
an  alteration  in  the  horizontal  position  of  stratified  rocks, 
since  the  period  when  they  were  consolidated." — Geology, 
vol.  i.  p.  88. 

In  the  kind  of  materials,  of  which  many  inclined  strata 
are  composed,  we  have  additional  evidence  of  their  eleva- 
tion. 

We  have  stated  that  depositions  of  sediment  from  water 
will  at  first  take  the  form  of  an  uneven  bottom  ;  but  we  need 
not  stop  to  prove,  that  fragments  of  rock  of  any  consid- 
erable size,  will  not  rest  on  the  sides  of  steep  declivities, 
but  will  roll  or  slide  down  by  their  own  gravity.  Now, 
"it  is  notorious,"  says  Dr.  Macculloch,  "that  the  conglom- 
erates which  form  such  conspicuous  strata  in  many  coun- 
tries, and  which  prevail  chiefly  at  the  boundary  which  sep- 
arates the  strata  called  secondary,  from  the  primary,  are 


ELEVATION    OF   CONTINENTS.  14i 

often  found  in  positions,  not  only  highly  inclined,  bat  ab- 
solutely vertical.  As  the  materials  of  these  are  often  of 
such  bulks  as  to  weigh  even  many  hundred  pounds,  it  is 
evident,  that  the  original  position  of  the  strata  which  con- 
tain them  must  have  been  horizontal." 

It  is  well  known  also,  that  certain  marine  worms  which 
live  in  sand,  and  inhabit  straight  tubular  shells,  invariably 
penetrate  the  sand  in  a  vertical  direction,  whether  the  sur- 
face be  horizontal  or  not.  If  the  strata  remain  undisturbed 
these  shells  remain  in  the  position  seen  at  Fig.  12. 

p.     12  And  it  needs  little  reflection  to  see 

that  a  concave,  or  dish-formed  shell, 
when  it  sinks  in  water,  must  reach 
the  bottom  with  its  convexity  down- 
wards, and  hence  in  all  recent  forma- 
tions, such  shells  are  always  found 
in  this  position.  But  in  the  inclined  strata,  of  which  we 
are  speaking,  such  tubular  shells  are  found  making  various 
angles  with  the  horizon,  though  they  preserve  their  perpen- 
dicularity with  respect  to  the  strata :  as  represented  at  b* 
Fig.  13,  while  had  the  strata  been 
l3-  pierced  after  its  disturbance,  it 

would  have  been  in  the  direction 
of  c.  The  concave  shells,  under 
like  circumstances,  are  found  to 
have  changed  their  positions,  their 
cavities  being  no  longer  upward, 
but  inclined  according  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  strata.  On  the  same  subject  Dr.  Ure  says, 
"the  erection  of  subaqueous  strata  into  primitive  mountains 
and  plains,  was  evidently  accompanied  with  universal  dis- 
ruption. Innumerable  fragments  of  both  the  upborne,  and 
upbearing  rocks,  were  tossed  about  and  washed  down  into 
the  congregated  waters,  along  the  precipitous  shores,  and 
over  the  beds  of  the  primeval  ocean.  These  shattered 
fragments  becoming  agglutinated  by  their  own  pulverulent 
cement,  soon  recomposed  continuous  strata,  which  bear  in- 
ternal evidence  of  the  violence  which  gave  them  birth. 
Thus  were  formed  the  transition  rocks  of  geologists,  min- 
eral masses  which  denote  the  passage  between  the  upright 
primitive,  and  the  horizontal  secondary  strata,  between 
those  of  inorganic  and  organic  evidence." 

The  convulsions  which  after  a  long  interval  caused  the 
deluge,  have  dislocated  many  of  these  conglomerates,  so 


144  ELEVATION    OF   CONTINENTS. 

Fig.  14.  that  strata  of  rounded  pebbles  assuredly 
agglutinated  in  a  horizontal  position,  are 
now  found  standing  in  upright  walls. 
Thus  the  famous  pudding-stones  of  Va- 
lorsine  in  Savoy,  are  a  kind  of  gray wacke 
schist,  containing  rounded  fragments  of 
gneiss,  and  mica-slate,  six  or  seven  inches 
in  diameter.  That  stones  previously 
rounded  by  attrition,  should  build  them- 
selves up  into  a  nearly  perpendicular  wall, 
as  seen  at  Fig.  14,  and  stand  steadily  thus, 
till  fine  particles  of  hydraulic  cement 
should  hare  time  to  envelop  and  fix  them 
in  their  places,  is  an  absurd  and  impos- 
sible supposition.  It  is  therefore  demon- 
strable that  these  pudding-stone  strata 
were  formed  in  horizontal,  or  slightly  in- 
clined beds,  and  erected  after  their  accre- 
tion. Such  effects  would  be  produced,  in 
the  convulsive  emergence  of  the  pebbly  banks  out  of  the 
primeval  ocean,  either  at  the  deluge,  or  by  some  preceding 
catastrophe.  There  are  mountains  10,000  feet  high,  in  the 
Alps,  formed  of  firmly  conglomerated  pebbles. 

Another  and  most  striking  proof  that  the  rocks  have 
been  elevated  by  some  force  acting  beneath  them,  is  ex- 
hibited by  primitive  mountains  in  various  parts  of  the 
world. 

Here  we  find  granite  in  the  centre,  with  stratified  rocks, 
as  gneiss,  mica-slate  and  clay-slate,  leaning  against  its 
sides,  sometimes  nearly  in  a  vertical  position.  Now  as 
these  stratified  rocks  must  have  been  deposited  on  a  hori- 
zontal level,  or  nearly  so,  and  surely  not  in  the  highly  in- 
clined positions  in  which  they  are  found,  it  is  evident  that 
their  original  positions  must  have  been  changed,  and  their 
inclinations  caused  by  the  game  force  which  elevated  the 
primitive  mountains. 

Under  the  article  "  Classification  of  Rocks,"  this  sub- 
ject is  illustrated  by  a  wood  cut,  to  which  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred. 

It  thus  appears  sufficiently  evident,  that  at  least  a  great 
proportion  of  the  habitable  earth  was  formed  in  strata 
under  the  sea;  and  that  subsequently  to  its  being  consol- 
idated chiefly  in  the  position  and  form  of  horizontal  lay- 
ers, it  has  been  violently  elevated  above  the  water,  by 


ELEVATION    Off    CONTINENTS.  145 

some  tremendous  subterranean  po\ver.  Hence  the  strata 
are  found  oblique,  dislocated,  and  rent  asunder  in  nearly 
every  part  of  the  world  ;  and  from  this  cause  it  is,  that  the 
sea  and  land  have  exchanged  places,  and  the  mountains 
have  been  elevated ;  but  to  the  same  cause,  even  to  the 
destruction  of  that  continuity  and  harmony  which  seems 
to  have  existed  in  the  form  of  the  primitive  globe,  we 
must  attribute  many  of  the  greatest  conveniences  and  com* 
forts  which  the  present  earth  affords. 

Had  no  disturbing  forces  interposed,  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  the  inferior  strata,  now  in  many  places  ele- 
vated into  hills  and  mountains,  would  for  ever  have  been 
concealed  from  the  knowledge  of  man ;  for  was  the  earth 
everywhere  covered  with  horizontal  strata,  lying  in  regu- 
lar layers,  one  upon  another,  the  same  kind  of  formations 
would  everywhere  exist ;  and  of  which  we  should  know 
nothing  below  the  depth  of  actual  excavations.  Metallic 
veins,  salt,  and  coal,  would  afford  no  indications  of  their 
existence  at  or  near  the  surface.  There  would  have  been 
no  mural  precipices,  or  mountain  declivities,  or  out- 
croppings  of  strata,  by  which  the  geologist,  or  practical 
miner,  would  be  enabled  to  judge  of  the  interior.  Nor 
would  there  have  b'een  any  spring  of  water  issuing  from 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  for  it  is  the  inclination  of  the 
strata  which  directs  the  water  to  the  surface,  and  its  un- 
evenness  which  allows  it  to  break  forth  in  the  form  of 
springs.  In  plain  level  districts,  no  water  rises  to  the 
surface.  In  these,  and  many  other  examples  which  might 
be  noticed,  we  cannot  but  see  the  traces  of  benevolence 
and  design,  even  in  the  "  wreck  of  matter,"  which  this 
earth  everywhere  displays ;  and  which,  at  every  step, 
forces  us  to  acknowledge,  not  only  the  Power,  but  the 
Wisdom  and  Kindness  of  the  Almighty  Builder  of  this 
our  habitation. 

With  respect  to  the  agent  which  has  thus  thrown  moun- 
tains and  continents  from  the  depths  of  the  oceans,  and 
has  dislocated  the  framework  of  the  globe,  we  can  con- 
ceive of  none  except  volcanic,  of  sufficient  power  to  pro- 
duce such  effects.  It  is  true  that  no  continents  or  exten- 
sive mountains,  have  been  elevated  from  the  sea,  since 
the  historical  era,  but  we  have  a  sufficient  number  of 
examples  of  the  effects  of  this  power,  even  during  the 
present  age,  to  show  that  the  established  order  of  nature 
would  not  be  changed  by  the  elevation  of  a  continent, 
13 


146  CLASSIFICATION    OF    ROCKS. 

The  elevation  of  land  to  the  extent  of  a  hundred  miles 
on  the  coast  of  Chili ;  the  rising  of  the  Sabrina  island  out 
of  the  ocean ;  and  of  the  Aleutian  islands  on  the  coast  of 
Kamtschatka,  out  of  the  same;  the  changes  made  by  the 
force  of  volcanoes  in  the  neighborhood  of  Naples,  and  the 
effects  of  the  earthquakes  of  Calabria  and  Lisbon,  (all  of 
which  we  have  described  in  the  preceding  pages,)  afford 
analogies  by  which  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  conclude, 
that  it  was  the  same  kind  of  force  which  broke  in  pieces 
the  crust  of  the  primeval  globe,  and  raised  the  habitable 
earth  from  the  ocean's  bed. 

At  what  period  of  the  creation  these  great  changes  took 
place,  we  must  remain  in  ignorance,  but  it  is  improbable 
that  they  were  all  effected  at  the  same  time.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  appearance  of  the  strata  seem  to  indicate  a  suc- 
cession of  revolutions  at  different,  and  perhaps  remote 
periods  from  each  other.  These  revolutions  nppear  to 
have  been  before  the  creation  of  man  and  animals,  and 
probably  by  such  means  did  the  Wisdom  and  Benevolence 
of  the  Creator  prepare  a  place  for  their  reception  and 
comfort. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    ROCKS. 


The  most  simple  division  of  rocks  is  into  Primitive  or 
Primary,  and  Secondary.  The  first  consisting  of  those 
which  are  supposed  to  have  been  originally  formed,  such 
as  granite  and  its  associates,  and  the  second  such  as  were 
formed  by  the  disintegration,  or  destruction  of  these.  In 
the  early  state  of  geological  knowledge  this  was  the  re- 
ceived classification.  In  the  first  kind  no  organic  re- 
mains, as  plants  or  shells,  are  found,  and  hence  they 
were  supposed  to  have  been  formed  before  the  creation  of 
organized  beings.  In  the  secondary,  these  remains  exist 
sometimes  in  great  abundance.  To  this  classification  the 
celebrated  Werner  added  the  Transition  class,  which  con- 
sists of  the  larger  fragments  of  the  primitive,  and  which 
is  intermediate  between  this,  and  that  usually  called  se- 
condary. 

At  present,  there  are  a  considerable  variety  of  classifi- 
cations, some  of  which  are  too  prolix  and  complicated  for 
a  popular  work,  while  others  are  forbidding  on  account  of 
the  technical  language  in  which  they  are  written. 


PRIMARY    ROCKS.  147 

Perhaps  the  best  which  we  can  adopt,  as  embracing  all 
the  others,  without  their  minute  subdivisions,  is  the  follow- 
ing: 

1.  PRIMARY. 

2.  TRANSITION,  OR  INTERMEDIATE. 

3.  SECONDARY,  comprising, 

a.  THE  LOWER  SECONDARY  SERIES. 

b.  THE  UPPER  SECONDARY  SERIES. 

4.  TERTIARY. 

5.  BASALTIC,  AND  VOLCANIC  ROCKS. 

6.  DILUVIAL,  AND  ALLUVIAL  DEPOSITES. 


PRIMARY    ROCKS. 


These  compose  the  great  frame,  or  groundwork  of  the 
globe.  They  form  the  most  lofty  mountains,  and  at  the 
same  time  extend  downward  below  all  other  formations. 
One  of  the  principal  rocks  of  this  class  is  granite.  This 
is  a  compound  rock,  being  composed  of  three  distinct  min- 
erals aggregated  into  a  solid  form.  These  are  quartz, 
felspar,  and  mica.  Quartz  has  commonly  a  white  color, 
a  glassy  lustre,  and  does  not  divide  into  layers  when 
broken.  It  often  forms  a  large  proportion  of  the  granite. 
Felspar  has  a  yellowish,  or  milk  white  color,  and  when 
broken,  often  divides  into  layers  of  considerable  thickness, 
with  smooth  shining  faces.  Mica  is  also  sometimes  white, 
but  more  commonly  of  a  dark  green  color.  It  consists  of 
thin  flexible  leaves,  adhering  slightly  together,  and  easily 
separable  by  the  nail.  This  is  well  known  under  the 
name  of  isinglass,  and  when  in  large  plates  is  used  for 
economical  purposes,  as  the  dead-lights  for  ships,  windows, 
for  stoves  and  lanthorns,  &c.  Granite  never  consists  of 
strata,  or  layers,  like  gneiss  and  mica-slate.  These  min- 
erals differ  greatly  in  their  respective  proportions  in  dif- 
ferent rocks.  They  also  differ  widely  with  respect  to 
size,  some  granites  being  composed  of  crystals,  or  grains, 
a  foot  in  diameter ;  while  in  others  the  grains  are  no 
larger  than  those  of  sand. 

The  other  Primitive  rocks,  are  Gneiss,  Mica-slate,  Clay- 
slate,  Primitive  Limestone,  Porphyry,  and  Sienite ;  to 
which  some  add  several  others. 

This  whole  class  is  generally  crystalline  in  its  struc- 


148  MICA-SLAT*. 

ture,  and  never  contain  the  fragments  of  other  rocks,  or 
any  organized  substance. 

Gneiss,  and  mica-slate  are  composed  of  the  same  ma- 
terials as  granite,  but  differently  arranged.  They  are  also 
generally  composed  of  much  smaller  grains  than  granite. 
In  gneiss  the  felspar  and  quartz  are  aggregated  closely 
together,  forming  strata,  or  layers,  between  which  inter- 
vene scales  of  mica.  Hence  gneiss  is  a  stratified  rock, 
and  when  broken  at  right  angles  with  the  strata,  presents 
a  striped  appearance,  the  quartz  and  felspar  being  nearly 
white,  while  the  mica  is  deep  green  or  black. 

Mica-slate  is  chiefly  composed  of  quartz  and  mica,  the 
felspar  being  in  only  small  quantities,  or  in  some  instances 
nearly  absent.  The  quartz  is  commonly  in  fine  grains, 
and  the  mica  usually  predominates,  or  at  least  is  much 
the  most  apparent.  Some  specimens  of  this  rock  appear 
to  be  almost  entirely  composed  of  small  scales  of  mica, 
closely  adhering  together. 

Mica-slate  differs  from  gneiss  in  containing  a  less  pro- 
portion of  felspar,  and  in  being  more  distinctly  stratified, 
or  slaty  in  its  structure.  It  is  readily  divided  into  layers, 
or  tables,  by  means  of  wedges,  and  is  extensively  employ- 
ed for  economical  purposes,  especially  for  flagging  the  side 
•walks  of  cities. 

Gneiss  is  intermediate  between  granite  and  mica-slate 
in  its  structure,  and  is  often  found  interposed  between  these 
Tocks,  lying  over  the  former,  and  under  the  latter.  Indeed 
these  rocks  pass  by  insensible  degrees  into  each  other, 
the  granite  gradually  becoming  stratified  runs  into  gneiss, 
while  the  gneiss  becoming  fissile  forms  mica-slate.  These 
three  are  called  granitic  rocks,  and  form  together  a  great 
proportion  of  the  solid  crust  of  our  globe. 

The  adjoining  wood  cut  from  Daubuisson,  represents 
the  most  common  relative  positions  of  granite,  gneiss  and 
mica-slate,  as  they  occur  on  the  earth. 

The  centre  or  middle  mass,  1,  projecting  high  above 
the  side  strata,  is  granitie.  The  flanking  planes,  2  2,  are 
gneiss,  appearing  as  though  they  had  been  elevated  to 
their  present  situation  by  the  tremendous  force  which 
lifted  up  the  granite.  The  mica-slate,  3,  3,  is  seen  rest- 
ing against  the  gneiss.  The  two  latter  rocks  have  the 
appearance  of  once  having  been  in  a  horizontal  position, 


the  mica-slate  being  superincumbent  on  the  gneiss,  and 
this  on  the  granite,  and  we  shall  see  in  another  place  that 
this  was  undoubtedly  the  case,  g  is  a  great  bed  of  quartz, 
included  in  the  micaceous  beds,  and  being  much  less 
subject  to  the  disintegration  by  the  weather,  rises  above 
the  mica.  4  4,  are  beds  of  clay-slate,  or  roof-slate,  on  the 
outside  of  the  mica-slate.  5,  is  an  overlaying  mass  of 
porphyry,  resting  on  the  mica  and  clay-slate.  6,  a  small 
bed  of  mica-slate,  resting  between  the  central  peaks  of 
granite,  with  the  strata  bent  and  sloping  in  opposite  di- 
rections, forming  a  dish-like  cavity.  Above  7  is  seen  a 
bed  of  clay  and  gravel  in  strata,  lying  nearly  horizontal 
on  the  upright  edsfes  of  the  clay-slate,  demonstrating  their 
subsequent  and  independent  formation. 

In  many  instances  there  is  safficient  proof  exhibited 
by  the  rocks  themselves,  that  the  primitive  strata  were 
once  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  that  they  owe  their  pre- 
sent vertical  position  to  a  force  exerted  from  below,  and  by 
which  the  granite,  being  elevated,  has  raised  up  the  once 
superincumbent  rocks,  and  given  them  their  various  in- 
clinations. This  subject  has  already  been  examined  un- 
der "  Elevations  of  Continents  from  the  Sea." 

Clay-slate.  Roof-slate.  This  rock  is  exceedingly  fis- 
sile, and  being  divided  into  thin  plates,  is  in  very  general 
use  for  the  roofing  of  houses ;  its  appearance,  therefore,  is 
too  generally  known  to  need  description. 

This  is  the  most  distinctly  stratified  of  all  the  primitive 
rocks,  and  it  is  a  singular  circumstance,  that  its  strata  are 
commonly  very  highly  inclined, — sometimes  nearly,  or 
quite  vertical.  This  rock  is  associated  with  granitic  rocks, 
being  often  superincumbent  on  mica-slate. 
13' 


150  PORPHYRY. 

Primitive  Limestone.  This  is  called  primitive,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  secondary,  or  that  which  has  been 
more  recently  formed ;  for  limestone  is  of  all  ages  from 
that  which  is  now  forming  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone,  to 
that  which  has  the  antiquity  of  the  granitic  mountains. 

Primitive  limestone  is  crystalline  in  its  structure,  and 
is  found  associated  with  granite,  gneiss,  and  mica-slate, 
being  often  intermixed  with  the  latter,  or  alternating  in 
layers  with  it.  No  organic  remains  are  found  in  this  rock, 
and  hence,  like  granite,  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  formed 
before  the  creation  of  living  beings.  When  white  and 
pure,  it  is  known  in  the  arts,  under  the  name  of  statuary 
marble,  of  which  the  finest  specimens  of  ancient  as  w^ll 
as  modern  sculpture  are  made.  It  is  found  particularly  in 
Italy,  Switzerland,  and  the  Grecian  Archipelago  The 
Carara  marble  is  a  primitive  limestone. 

Secondary  Limestone  contains  shells  and  other  organic 
bodies — is  compact,  and  not  crystalline  in  its  structure, 
and  is  associated  with  secondary  rocks.  Thus  may  the 
two  kinds  be  distinguished. 

Porphyry  derives  its  name  from  a  Greek  word,  signify- 
ing purple,  because  the  first  rock  to  which  this  name  was 
applied  had  a  purple  color.  At  present,  however,  any 
rock  having  a  compact,  or  paste-like  base,  with  imbedded 
crystals,  is  called  by  this  name,  whatever  its  color  maybe. 

Porphyry  has  the  appearance  of  having  once  been  in 
the  form  of  a  soft  paste,  into  which  crystals  of  various 
kinds,  but  most  commonly  felspar,  have,  by  some  unknown 
means  been  introduced.  When  associated  with  granite, 
porphyry  is  considered  a  primitive  rock,  but  is  sometimes 
secondary,  and  sometimes  volcanic.  It  may,  perhaps,  be 
considered  as  the  connecting  link  between  granitic  rocks, 
and  those  of  igneous  origin. 

The  columns  of  some  of  the  most  ancient  and  splendid 
edifices  were  made  of  porphyry,  of  which  the  remains  are 
still  in  existence.  The  great  hardness  of  this  rock  ;  the 
high  polish  which  it  is  capable  of  bearing,  and  the  variety 
and  beauty  of  the  colors  which  it  often  presents,  afford  a 
combination  of  qualities  for  splendid  and  enduring  archi- 
tectural purposes,  which  is  found  in  no  other  mineral 
body.  But  the  labor  of  forming  pillars  of  thirty  or  forty 
feet  in  height,  and  five  or  six  feet  in  diameter,  of  this  ma- 


IGNEOUS    ORIGIN    OF    GRANITE.  151 

terial,  such  as  the  ancients  constructed,  is  much  too  great 
and  expensive  for  the  present  age. 

Porphyry,  though  not  an  uncommon  rock,  seldom  oc- 
curs in  extensive  formations  like  granite  and  limestone. 

Sienite.  This  rock  is  composed  of  quartz,  felspar  and 
hornblende.  It  may  be  considered  as  a  granite  in  which 
the  mica  is  replaced  by  hornblende;  it,  however,  some- 
times contains  small  portions  of  mica.  Its  structure  is 
granular  like  that  of  granite,  and  its  prevailing  color  is 
yellowish  white,  mottled  with  black,  giving  it  a  gray  ap- 
pearance. The  city  of  Boston  contains  many  magnificent 
columns  of  sienite.  It  is  associated  with  granite,  into 
which  it  gradually  passes,  as  the  mica  takes  the  place  of 
the  hornblende. 


IGNEOUS    ORIGIN    OF    GRANITE. 

It  was  formerly  believed  that  granite  was  of  aqueous 
origin,  that  is,  that  the  materials  of  which  it  is  composed 
were  first  dissolved  in  water  as  preparatory  to  their  as- 
suming that  solid  and  crystalline  form,  which  we  see  at 
the  present  time.  Now  chemistry  has  long  since  taught 
us  that  no  substance  in  the  laboratory  of  art,  nor  so  far  as  is 
known,  in  that  of  nature,  ever  assumes  the  crystalline 
form  until  it  has  been  dissolved  in  some  kind  of  fluid;  and 
indeed  a  single  consideration  would  seem  to  show,  beyond 
all  question,  the  necessity  of  such  solution,  for  otherwise 
there  could  be  no  motion  among  the  particles  of  which  the 
crystal  is  formed,  and  without  motion  it  is  equally  certain 
that  these  particles  never  could  take  their  places  according 
to  the  laws  of  affinity,  or  in  other  terms,  nexrer  could  as- 
sume crystalline  forms. 

The  kind  of  fluid  in  which  the  particles  are  dissolved,  it 
is  obvious,  must  depend  on  the  kind  of  substance.  Thus 
some  substances  are  soluble  in  water,  others  in  acids,  and 
others  in  caloric.  Now,  although  the  materials  composing 
granite  are  scarcely  soluble  by  any  artificial  means,  still 
there  is  no  doubt  but  under  a  very  high  temperature,  with 
the  combined  aid  of  pressure,  they  would  be  soluble  in 
water,  or  in  caloric  alone,  and  the  phenomena,  as  we  shall 
see,  afford  conclusive  evidence  that  the  latter  was  the  sol- 


152 


IGNEOUS    ORIGIN    OF    GRANITE. 


vent,  and  that  the  materials  composing  granite  were  once  in 
a  melted  state. 

The  igneous  origin  of  granite  is  satisfactorily  proved, 
from  the  phenomena  of  its  veins : — from  the  calorific  ef- 
fects of  these  veins  on  the  walls  of  the  rocks,  through 
which  they  have  protruded ; — from  the  intrusion  of  granitic 
matter  between  the  strata  of  various  rocks  through  which 
such  veins  have  been  forced,  and  lastly,  from  the  passage 
of  known  igneous  rocks  into  granite. 

The  igneous  origin  of  trap  rocks  has  long  been  ac- 
knowledged by  all  competent  geologists,  but  the  general 
agreement  that  granite  had  the  same  origin  is  only  of  re- 
cent date.  The  proofs  however  of  the  origin  of  both  are 
nearly  the  same. 

Under  the  "  Origin  and  phenomena  of  Trap  Rocks" 
it  will  be  seen  that  dykes  or  veins  of  basalt  often  protrude 
through  the  strata  of  other  rocks,  and  that  where  they 
come  into  contact  with  these  strata,  the  effects  of  heat  are 
always  apparent.  The  illustrations  by  diagrams,  also 
prove  that  these  veins,  or  dykes,  wrere  forced  through  the 
fissures,  or  spread  between  the  strata  of  the  rocks,  while 
the  former  was  in  a  soft  or  semifluid  state.  The  same 
phenomena  are  found  to  attend  veins  of  granite  which 
traverse  other  rocks,  there  being  every  indication  that  these 
veins  were  forced  up  from  below  in  an  ignited  and  soften- 
ed state. 

Fig.  16.  The  diagram  Fig. 

16,    will   show  the 
manner     in     which 


^granite  sometimes 
traverses  stratified 
=fiii  rocks.  This  drawing 
is  from  Dr.  Maccul- 
loch's  representation 
of  granite  veins  pass- 
ing through  gneiss  at 
cape  Wrath  in  Scot- 

«**;  •*•  TT^'  '  •  •  •  floo-N^v—  -  -  •  --  land-  These  veins, 
'-.;<vV^^' ;'.;':•'.  :X^.v^^?ii>  ;X:i?  ?  maY  be  observed, 
Vv^vNVv-*-*'*  •''•'•' •1»'-'v"O'.*V' "»*«*"'•  '-'L~~-'  intersect  each  other 

in  various  directions, 

and  are  curiously  branched  and  contorted.  The  mass  of  gran- 
ite below  the  stratified  gneiss,  is  also  apparent,  and  as  the 
veins  end  before  reaching  the  surface  of  the  gneiss,  we  cannot 


IGNEOUS    ORIGIN    OF    GRANITE. 


153 


but  infer  that  they  were  forced  up  in  a  softened  state  from 
the  underlaying  granite  with  which  their  trunks  are  incor- 
porated. Similar  instances,  that  is,  of  granite  veins  travers- 
ing stratified  rocks,  and  also  rocks  of  granite,  are  known 
to  occur  frequently  and  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  In 
Europe  such  cases  were  formerly  considered  singular  and 
important  phenomena,  and  as  they  went  to  prove  the  ig- 
neous origin  of  granite,  they  were  described  with  great 
prolixity  and  exactness.  But  the  progress  of  observation 
has  shown  that  granitic  veins  are  quite  common,  and  that 
particularly  in  mica-slate,  examples  may  be  seen  in  almost 
any  place,  where  circumstances  allow  the  rock  to  be  ex- 
amined a  few  yards  below  the  surface,  and  often  on  the 
surface  itself. 

In  this  country,  Prof.  Hitchcock  of  Amherst  College, 
in  his  Report  of  the  Geology  of  Massachusetts,  has  de- 
scribed and  figured  many  such  cases ;  some  of  which  we 
shall  take  the  liberty  of  inserting  at  this  place. 
Fig.  17. 


Fig.  17,  (fig.  1 1,  in  Prof.  Hitchcock's  work,)  represents 
a  vein  of  granite  protruding  through  strata  of  hornblende 
slate.  It  occurs  at  Ackworth,  New  Hampshire,  and  is  a 
remarkable  locality  of  beryls,  rose  quartz,  and  crystallized 
mica. 

"  As  the  traveller  approaches  this  spot,"  says  the  author, 
1  he  will  observe  while  several  miles  distant,  a  remarkable 


154  IGNEOUS    ORIGIN    OF    GRANITE. 

conical  half-naked  peak,  chiefly  of  white  granite,  shooting 
up  about  300  feet  above  the  surrounding  country.  This 
is  the  hill  represented  below,  (Fig.  17,)  as  seen  on  its  north- 
western side,  along  which  the  road  passes.  The  prevail- 
ing rock  in  the  vicinity  is  gneiss ;  but  in  this  elevation  it 
is  chiefly  hornblende  slate,  traversed  by  an  enormous 
granite  vein,  a,  and  exhibiting  at  least  two  protruding 
masses,  b,  and  c,  of  granite.  The  vein  varies  from  one 
half,  to  four  rods  in  thickness,  and  the  mass  b,  is  four  or 
five  rods  across :  c,  is  only  ten  feet  wide.  The  general 
direction  of  the  lamina?  of  the  slate  is  north  and  south,  and 
the  dip  from  15°  to  20°  east :  but  we  have  here  the  most 
decisive  marks  of  its  having  been  irregularly  upheaved, 
and  disturbed  by  the  protruding  granite.  Near  the  foot 
of  the  hill,  the  slate  is  bent  upwards,  so  that  the  chord  of 
the  curve  is  several  rods  long.  But  it  is  a  curious  fact, 
that  the  axis  of  the  elevating  force  seerns  not  to  have  co- 
incided with  the  direction  in  which  the  vein  was  erupted. 
For  the  highest  point  of  the  curve  of  elevation,  near  the 
foot  of  the  hill,  is  to  the  right  of  the  vein  at  h  ;  and  as  we 
ascend  the  hill  we  find  the  slate  curved  upwards  near  the 
vein  more  and  more,  as  is  shown  by  the  drawing.  Indeed, 
the  granite  of  the  vein  seems  to  lie  on  the  elevated  edges 
of  the  slate  ;  so  that  the  lower  side  of  the  vein  dips  north- 
easterly;  and  does  not  cut  the  slate  perpendicularly.  These 
facts  would  seem  to  evince,  that  the  vein  made  its  way 
through  the  slate,  not  along  the  line  of  the  greatest  press- 
ure, but  on  the  north  side  of  it ;  probably  because  there  the 
slate  yielded  most  readily.  We  may  suppose  the  melted 
granite  below  to  have  gradually  elevated  the  slate,  until 
at  length  it  burst  its  way  laterally  through  the  rock.  Such 
cases,  I  believe,  do  sometimes  occur  in  existing  volcanoes. 

"  The  masses  of  granite  b,  and  c,  are  probably  other  ex- 
amples in  which  the  molten  matter  bursts  its  way  laterally 
through  the  slate.  And  it  is  an  interesting  fact  in  regard 
to  the  mass  b,  that  in  some  places  it  still  projects  over  the 
slate  several  feet,  forming  in  fact  an  overlaying  mass.  In- 
stances of  this  kind  I  have  rarely  met  with  in  the  granite 
of  New  England."  Page  480. 

Fig.  18,  also  from  Prof.  Hitchcock's  work,  represents  a 
nearly  perpendicular  ledge  of  mica-slate  in  Conway,  Mass. 
The  strata  as  shown  by  the  drawing,  are  much  contorted 
indicating  disturbance  during  their  deposition,  or  while  thev 
were  in  a  soft  and  yielding  state,  a,  a,  are  strata  of  com 


PASSAGE    OF    GRANITE    INTO    BASALT.  155 

Fig.  18. 


mon  mica-slate  :  b,  is  a  stratum  of  amphibolic  slate.  The 
whole  surface  exhibited  is  fifteen  feet  long  and  eight  feet 
high.  Through  this  ledge  runs  a  vein  of  fine  grained 
granite  a  foot  wide. 

"  The  object  of  giving  this  sketch,"  says  Prof.  Hitch- 
cock, "  is  to  show  that  this  vein  has  produced  no  derange- 
ment of  the  mica-slate :  for  the  different  particles  of  that 
rock  occupy  the  same  relative  position  on  the  different 
sides  of  the  vein.  Hence  the  vein  was  introduced  subse- 
quently to  the  consolidation  of  the  slate  j  and  probably  it 
was  injected  into  an  open  fissure." 


PASSAGE    OF    GRANITE    INTO    BASALT. 

Dr.  Hibbert  describes  the  manner  in  which  granite  has 
gradually  passed  into  basalt  in  one  of  the  Shetland  islands. 
The  basalt  extends  from  the  island  of  Mickle  Voe  north- 
wards to  Roeness  Voe,  a  distance  of  twelve  miles.  On 
the  west  of  this  there  is  a  considerable  mass  of  granite, 
andlhe  transition  from  the  one  into  the  other  is  thus  de- 
scribed. "  Not  far  from  the  junction  we  may  find,  disper- 
sed through  the  basalt,  many  minute  particles  of  quartz. 
This  is  the  first  indication  of  an  approaching  change  in  the 
nature  of  the  rock.  In  again  tracing  it  still  nearer  the 
granite,  we  find  the  particles  of  quartz  dispersed  through 
the  basalt,  becoming  still  more  numerous  and  larger,  an 
increase  of  magnitude  even  extending  to  every  other  de- 
scription of  particles.  The  rock  may  now  be  observed 
to  consist  of  separate  ingredients,  of  quartz,  of  hornblende, 


156  PASSAGE    OF    GRANITE    INTO    BASALT. 

felspar,  and  greenstone ;  the  latter  substance,  (greenstone,) 
being  a  homogeneous  commixture  of  hornblende  and  fel- 
spar. Again,  as  we  approach  still  nearer  the  granite,  the 
disseminated  portions  of  greenstone  disappear,  their  place 
being  supplied  by  an  additional  quantity  of  felspar  and 
quartz.  The  rock  now  consists  of  three  ingredients,  fel- 
spar, quartz,  and  hornblende.  The  last  change  which 
takes  place,  results  from  the  still  increasing  accumulation 
of  quartz  and  felspar,  and  from  the  proportionate  dissem- 
ination of  hornblende.  The  hornblende  eventually  disap- 
pears, and  we  have  a  well  characterized  granite,  consisting 
of  two  ingredients,  felspar  and  quartz."  Ed.  Journal  of 
Science,  vol.  i.  p.  107. 

We  see,  from  these  examples,  that  granite  has  been 
forced  from  below  into  the  fissures  of  other  rocks  which 
were  superincumbent,  consequently,  which  were  deposited 
after  the  granite  was  formed.  In  several  instances  it  may 
be  observed  also,  that  the  granite  does  not  reach  the  sur- 
face, by  which  it  is  proved  that  these  veins  could  not  have 
entered  from  above,  a  theory  long  maintained  by  those 
who  claimed  that  granite  was  of  aqueous  origin.  Besides, 
the  indications  of  fusion  which  these  veins  present,  the  pas- 
sage of  granite  into  basalt,  a  rock  which  all  agree  bears 
the  marks  of  fire,  is  additional  evidence  that  they  had  a 
common  origin. 

But  if  we  consider  granite  veins  to  have  forced  their 
way  from  below,  in  a  state  of  igneous  fusion,  then  we 
might  expect,  that  when  the  mass  came  into  contact  with 
stratified  rocks,  the  strata  would  be  separated,  and  that  the 
fluid  matter  would  run  between  them,  at  least  to  a  short 
distance,  and  especially  near  the  surface,  where  the  pres- 
sure would  present  little  resistance  to  the  separation  of  the 
strata.  Now  this  is  precisely  what  is  known  to  have  hap- 
pened in  numerous  instances,  one  of  the  most  striking  ex- 
amples of  which  occurs  at  Glen  Tilt,  in  the  Grampian 
mountains  in  Scotland. 

At  this  place,  veins  of  red  granite  are  seen  branching 
out  on  the  northern  side  of  the  glen,  from  the  principal 
mass,  and  meeting  the  slate  and  limestone  which  forms  the 
southern  side.  The  granite  veins  run  in  all  directions, 
intermingling  with,  and  disturbing  the  strata  of  the  other 
rocks,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prove,  not  only  that  the 

franite  was  in  a  fluid  state  at  the  time  of  its  intrusion, 
ut  also,  that  it  was  forced  up  with  great  violence. 


GRANITK    OF    DIFFERENT    AGES. 


Fig.  19. 


157 


The  diagram,  Fig.  19,  from  Dr.  Macculloch,  represents 
the  appearance  of  these  rocks.  "  The  granite  at  this  local- 
ity," says  Mr.  Lyell,  "often  sends  forth  so  many  veins  as 
to  reticulate  the  limestone  and  schist,  the  veins  diminishing 
towards  their  termination  to  the  thickness  of  a  leaf  of  pa- 
per, or  a  thread.  In  some  places  fragments  of  granite  ap- 
pear entangled,  as  it  were,  in  the  limestone,  and  are  not 
visibly  connected  with  any  larger  mass;  while  sometimes, 
on  the  other  hand,  a  lump  of  the  limestone  is  found  in  the 
midst  of  the  granite ;"  a,  granite,  b,  limestone,  c,  argillace- 
ous schist. 

The  ordinary  color  of  the  limestone  at  Glen  Tilt  is  lead 
blue,  and  its  texture  large  grained;  but  where  it  approxi- 
mates to  the  granite,  particularly  where  it  is  penetrated 
by  the  smaller  veins,  the  crystalline  texture  disappears,  and 
it  assumes  an  appearance  exactly  resembling  hornstone. 
This  change  was  undoubtedly  produced  by  the  heat  of  the 
intruding  granite. 

These  facts  and  circumstances  are  considered  sufficient 
to  show  the  igneous  origin  of  granite,  though  an  abund- 
ance of  others  of  a  similar  nature  might  be  adduced  from 
authors. 


GRANITE    OF    DIFFERENT    AGES. 

All  the  older  geological  writers  believed  that  granite 
was  the  primitive  rock  of  our  globe,  and  the  one  on  which 
14 


158         DIFFERENCE    BETWEEN    IGNEOUS    ROCKS. 

all  others  reposed.  They  also  considered  this  rock  as 
everywhere  of  a  similar  age,  the  idea  of  successive  forma- 
tions of  granite  having  never  until  recently  been  advanced. 
These  opinions  were  founded  on  the  general  facts,  that  this 
rock  lies  beneath  all  others,  and  that  it  contains  no  organic 
remains,  which  facts  even  at  the  present  day  we  must 
acknowledge  to  be  generally  true.  More  extensive  obser- 
vations have,  however,  shown  many  exceptions  to  these 
facts,  there  having  been  discovered  instances  where  gran- 
ite not  only  penetrates  through,  and  reposes  on  stratified 
rocks,  but  also  where  the  rocks  invaded  by  it  contain  or- 
ganic remains.  Thus  Dr.  Macculloch  describes  a  consid- 
erable mass  of  granite  in  the  Isle  of  Sky,  which  is  incum- 
bent on  limestone,  and  shale.  The  limestone  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  granite  contains  shells,  but  in  its  immediate 
vicinity,  no  shells  appear,  the  limestone  being  converted 
into  pure  crystalline  marble.  This  change,  as  well  as  the 
destruction  of  the  shells,  is  attributed  to  the  heat  of  the 
granite  at  the  time  of  its  protrusion. 

In  different  part  of  the  Alps,  similar  phenomena  occur, 
where,  according  to  the  observations  of  Beaumont,  and 
others,  granite  is  seen  penetrating  through  secondary  strata, 
which  contain  belemnites,  and  other  fossil  organic  remains. 

In  Norway,  also,  Von  Bush  discovered  a  mass  of  granite 
overlaying  a  bed  of  secondary  limestone,  containing  a  va- 
riety of  fossil  shells. 

These  and  other  instances  of  the  kind,  must  however  be 
considered  as  exceptions  to  a  general  rule,  there  being  no 
doubt,  but  the  granite  which  universally  forms  the  deep- 
er portions  of  the  crust  of  our  globe,  is  the  eldest  of  our 
rocks. 


DIFFERENCE    BETWEEN    IGNEOUS    ROCKS. 

After  having  shown  that  granite,  as  well  as  greenstone, 
is  an  igneous  rock,  the  inquiry  naturally  arises  why  these 
two  rocks  differ  so  widely  in  appearance,  if  indeed  they 
have  had  the  same  origin  ?  This  is  a  question  which  our 
present  knowledge  docs  not  enable  us  to  answer  with  any 
degree  of  certainty,  nor  indeed  do  geologists  profess  to  do 
more  than  offer  plausible  conjectures  to  account  for  these 
differences. 


TRANSITION,  OR  INTERMEDIATE  ROCKS.  159 

The  composition  of  greenstone  is  hornblende  and  fel- 
spar, that  of  granite  is  felspar,  quartz,  and  mica.  The 
crystals  in  the  greenstone  are  commonly  small,  often  too 
minute  to  be  distinguished  by  the  naked  eye,  while  those 
of  granite  are  generally  of  considerable  size,  often  many 
inches  in  diameter. 

Some  geologists  have  supposed  that  the  difference  in  the 
size  of  the  crystals,  might  be  accounted  for  by  the  differ- 
ence in  the  time  of  cooling,  since  chemistry,  in  some  in- 
stances, has  shown  that  the  same  materials  will  form  large 
crystals  when  cooled  slowly,  and  small  ones  when  cooled 
suddenly.  It  has  been  conjectured,  therefore,  that  the  trap- 
pean  rocks  were  erupted  under  the  sea,  and  that  the  pres- 
sure of  the  water,  and  the  rapid  abstraction  of  the  heat,  by 
its  agency,  has  caused  the  difference  in  texture.  But  if  we 
admit  that  the  granite  was  fused  at  a  greater  depth,  and  in 
larger  quantities,  and  account  for  the  difference  of  texture 
on  these  conditions,  still  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  why  such 
conditions  should  produce  such  changes  in  the  composi- 
tions of  the  two  rocks,  the  greenstone  containing  little  or 
no  mica,  or  quartz,  while  the  granite  contains  only  an  oc- 
casional portion  of  hornblende. 

If  we  compare  granite,  and  the  varieties  of  trap,  with 
the  volcanic  products  of  the  present  time,  or  with  those  of 
ancient,  extinct  volcanoes,  we  shall  find,  in  general,  little 
analogy,  either  in  appearance  or  composition,  between 
them.  No  volcano,  either  ancient  or  modern,  has  ever 
been  known  to  emit  either  granite  or  trap ;  though  the  lat- 
ter and  some  volcanic  products  have  considerable  affinity. 

It  is  possible  that  future  observations  may  throw  light 
on  this  subject,  but,  at  present,  though  geologists  generally 
agree  that  granite,  trap,  and  lava,  were  all  once  in  a  state 
of  fusion,  yet  no  one  has  given  any  satisfactory  theory  to 
account  for  the  differences  they  present  in  appearance,  tex- 
ture, and  composition. 


TRANSITION,  OR  INTERMEDIATE  ROCKS. 

Next  in  order  to  the  primitive  are  the  Transition  rocks. 
l^oe  teim  transition  comes  from  the  Latin  transitio,  in  ref- 
erence 10  Jieir  removal,  or  change  of  place.  These  rocks 
are  above  the  primitive,  on  which  they  rest. 


160  TRANSITION,  OR  INTERMEDIATE  ROCKS. 

This  formation  is  composed  of  the  larger  fragments 
of  all  the  primitive  rocks,  consolidated  into  continuous 
masses.  The  manner  in  which  the  transition  rocks  were 
formed,  appears  to  be  sufficiently  obvious.  At  the  time 
when  the  waters  were  gathered  into  one  place,  to  form  the 
sea,  or  when  the  primitive  rocks  were  thrown  up  from  the 
ocean,  the  disruptions  and  dislocations  consequent  upon 
these  mighty  movements,  reduced  the  highest  parts  of  the 
primitive  to  fragments,  which  falling  down  upon  the  sides 
of  the  mountains,  covered  them  with  their  ruins ;  and  these 
becoming  agglutinated  by  the  pulverulent  cement,  pro- 
duced by  the  friction  of  these  fragments,  formed  the  rocks 
in  question. 

In  the  course  of  their  consolidation,  organized  beings  of 
the  lowest  orders,  such  as  sea  shells,  falling  in  their  crev- 
ices, were  there  imbedded  ;  and  thus  it  is  proved  that  these 
rocks  were  formed  after  the  creation  of  organized  beings. 
That  they  were  formed  next  after  the  primitive  rocks,  is 
proved  by  their  lying  immediately  on  them. 

The  rocks  belonging  to  this  class  are  Gfaywacke,  Trans- 
ition Limestone,  Slate,  and  Sandstone. 

Graywacke.  This  uncouth  word,  which  we  have  bor- 
rowed from  the  Germans,  the  French  geologists  have  ex- 
changed  for  the  term  traumate,  which  signifies  frag- 
mentary. 

Graywacke  is  a  slaty  formation,  which  includes  the  frag- 
ments of  many  other  rocks.  These  fragments  vary  in 
size,  from  that  of  the  head  to  the  smallest  grains.  Some- 
times it  consists  almost  entirely  of  rounded  pebbles,  ce- 
mented together  by  sand  and  oxide  of  iron.  It  is  then 
called  conglomerate,  and  no  longer  retains  its  slaty  char- 
acter. When  the  grains  are  small,  and  it  is  stratified,  it 
becomes  slate;  and  when  not  stratified,  it  passes  into  sand- 
stone. The  Rhode  Island  coal  mine  is  in  a  graywacke 
formation. 

Transition  Limestone.  This  is  an  abundant  rock,  be 
ing  that  which  is  employed  in  making  quicklime  for  mor- 
tar, and  also,  in  many  countries,  as  a  building  stone. 
Many  of  the  common  variegated  marbles  belong  to  this 
formation.  Some  specimens  are  finely  colored,  and  bear- 
ing a  high  polish,  form  beautiful  slabs  for  tables  and  fire- 
places. 


SANDSTONE.  161 

This  rock  sometimes  underlays  large  sections  of  coun- 
try, and  in  other  instances  rises  into  extensive  ranges  of 
mountains.  The  great  caverns  which  are  described  as  ex- 
isting in  different  countries,  and  which  often  contain  the 
remains  of  animals,  are  of  this  class. 

Some  transition  limestones  contain  abundance  of  marine 
organic  remains,  and  hence  must  have  been  formed  under 
the  ocean.  In  other  instances  no  fossil  relics  are  found, 
but  the  rock  is  composed  of  angular,  or  water-worn  frag- 
ments, consolidated  by  a  calcareous  cement.  The  presence 
of  such  fragments  will  always  distinguish  the  transition 
from  the  secondary  limestones. 

In  England  and  Wales,  this  is  a  very  extensive  and  im- 
portant formation,  and  contains  not  only  vast  quantities 
of  organic  relics,  but  various  metallic  ores.  "  In  Derby- 
shire," says  Mr.  Bakewell,  "  where  the  different  beds  of 
limestone  have  been  pierced  through  by  the  miners,  the 
average  thickness  of  the  three  uppermost,  is  160  yards ;  the 
beds  are  separated  by  beds  of  trap,  or  basalt,  resembling 
ancient  lavas." 

Slate.  Clay  slate,  although  often  associated  with  prim- 
itive rocks,  as  already  noticed,  is  also  found  with  those  of 
the  transition  class.  But  we  have  already  given  a  suffi- 
cient description  of  this  rock. 

Porphyry.  This  is  also,  sometimes  a  transition  rock,  be- 
ing so  considered  when  it  is  found  associated  with  rocks  of 
this  class. 

Sandstone.  This  rock,  as  its  name  indicates,  consists 
chiefly  of  sand,  cemented  into  a  solid  form.  It  often  con- 
tains water-worn  pebbles,  angular  pieces  of  other  rocks, 
as  granite,  fragments  of  slate,  nodules  of  quartz,  &c.,  being 
evidently  made  up  of  the  ruins  of  former  rocks.  Its  color 
is  commonly  red,  owing  to  the  oxide  of  iron  it  contains, 
and  which  serves  as  a  cement  to  the  grains  of  sand  of 
which  it  is  compdsed. 

Sandstone,  by  an  uninterrupted  continuity,  passes  into 
graywacke.  The  only  difference  appears  to  be,  that  the 
latter  rock  is  commonly  stratified,  and  of  a  darker  color, 
not  having,  like  the  sandstone,  a  tinge  of  red.  Where 
the  graywacke  is  not  of  a  slaty  structure,  it  become  sand- 
stone. 

14* 


162  SECONDARY  ROCKS. 


SECONDARY  ROCKS. 

The  secondary  rocks  have,  by  some,  been  divided  into 
the  lower  secondary,  and  upper  secondary,  the  second  be- 
ing superincumbent  on  the  first;  but  as  it  is  difficult  to  de- 
termine where  the  lower  series  terminate,  and  the  upper 
one  commences,  we  shall  follow  the  more  simple  method 
of  considering'  the  whole  as  merely  secondary  formations. 
The  same  difficulty,  indeed,  is  applicable  to  the  termination 
of  the  transition  series,  and  the  commencement  of  the 
secondary.  The  chief  differences  being,  that  the  second- 
ary is  not  so  generally  composed  of  fragments,  shows  less 
of  the  crystalline  structure,  and  contains  organic  remains 
of  known  existing  species ;  while  the  transition  class  is 
more  fragmentary;  more  crystalline, *and  contains  few  or 
no  shells,  known  to  be  recent,  or  living. 

The  principal  secondary  formations,  are  Coal,  Seconda- 
ry Limestone,  Chalk,  Oolite,  and  Sandstone. 

The  last  named  rock,  we  have  placed  among  the  transi- 
tion series;  and  undoubtedly  that  which  is  composed,  in 
considerable  proportion,  of  the  fragments  of  other  rocks, 
belongs  there ;  but  many  sandstone  formations  appear 
more  properly  to  be  arranged  as  secondary  rocks.  The 
actual  inquirer  will  often  find  himself  at  a  loss  to  deter- 
mine, from  the  position  of  strata,  with  respect  to  each 
other,  which  are  the  transition,  and  which  the  secondary; 
because,  in  many  instances,  the  secondary,  as  well  as  the 
tertiary,  to  be  next  described,  will  be  found  lying  imme- 
diately upon  the  primitive.  This  arises  from  the  fact,  that 
no  formation  of  the  secondary  series  extends  to  every  part 
.of  the  earth.  Did  the  different  formations  cover  the  earth 
entirely,  as  the  coats  of  an  onion  surround  each  other,  there 
would  exist  neither  doubt  nor  difficulty  on  this  subject ; 
for  then  the  same  characters  would  identify  the  different 
classes,  in  all  parts  of  the  earth,  and  each  could  be  known, 
merely  by  its  depth  under  the  surface.  But  instead  of 
this,  it  is  quite  common,  even  in  countries  of  no  conside- 
rable elevation,  to  observe  the  primitive  rocks  projecting 
above  the  surface,  or  lying  only  a  few  feet  beneath  the 
soil.  It  is,  therefore,  only  in  certain  parts  of  the  earth, 
that  the  relative  positions  of  strata  can  be  determined,  as  a 
whole,  for  it  is  obvious,  from  what  we  have  stated,  that 
in  some  places,  the  newest  formations  overlay  the  oldest, 


COAL    FIELDS.  163 

without  the  intervention  of  any  other.  In  such  situations, 
however,  as  afford  opportunities  for  observing  the  several 
strata  lying  superincumbent,  the  same  relatiye  positions 
are  found  everywhere  to  exist,  or  to  exist  so  uniformly 
as  to  lead  to  definite  general  conclusions. 

Coal.  This  well  known  substance  affords  several  vari- 
eties, differing  in  color,  from  dark  brown  to  jet  black,  and 
containing  variable  proportions  of  carbon  and  bitumen, 
with  more  or  less  impurities. 

The  English  mineral  coal,  is  stated  by  mineralogists  to 
contain  from  fifteen  to  forty  per  cent,  of  bitumen,  and  from 
forty  to  eighty  per  cent,  of  charcoal. 

Black,  or  common  coal,  is  found  in  regular  strata,  or 
beds,  from  a  few  inches,  to  several  yards  in  thickness. 
Several  beds  commonly  occur  under  each  other,  being 
separated  by  strata  of  clay  or  sandstone.  These  series  of 
strata  are  called  coalfields,  or  coal  measures. 

Coal  Fields.  Every  coal  field  has  its  peculiar  series  of 
strata,  which  vary  in  thickness  from  those  of  any  other. 
The  coal  beds  are  also  separated  by  deposites,  which  dif- 
fer in  thickness,  in  kind,  or  in  arrangement,  from  those  of 
other  formations.  Hence  each  coal  field  is  a  distinct  and 
independent  deposite,  and  is  in  no  way  connected  with 
any  other  coal  field,  with  respect  to  the  sources  whence 
their  materials  were  originally  derived.  Hence  they  are 
all  of  limited  extent,  and  most  commonly  basin-shaped 
concavities,  which  have  the  forms,  and  so  far  as  can  be 
ascertained,  the  appearance  of  once  having  been  lakes,  or 
ponds  of  greater  or  less  depth  and  extent.  In  some  of 
the  large  coal  fields,  the  original  formation  of  the  lake 
cannot  be  traced,  but  in  many  smaller  ones,  it  is  distinctly 
ascertained. 

The  number  of  coal  beds,  and  the  various  intervening 
strata  through  which  the  shafts  of  some  coal  mines  pass, 
often  amount  to  great  numbers.  In  a  coal  field  belonging 
to  Lord  Dudley,  in  Staffordshire,  a  shaft  was  sunk  to  the 
depth  of  939  feet.  The  beds  passed  through  in  this  shaft, 
which  the  miners  distinguish  by  different  names,  are 
sixty-five.  The  number  of  beds  of  coal,  are  eleven,  of 
which  five  are  above  the  principal  bed,  called  the  main 
coal,  and  five  below  it.  The  main  coal  is  about  three  hun- 
dred feet  below  the  surface,  and  consists  of  thirteen  diffo- 


164  ROCK   SALT. 

rent  beds,  lying  close  to  each  other,  but  separated  by  their 
layers  of  slate-clay.  Its  thickness  is  about  twenty-seven 
feet. 

To  convey  an  idea  of  the  regularity  of  these  strata,  we 
here  give  the  names  of  a  few  of  them,  and  the  succession 
in  which  they  occur,  beginning  with  the  lowest. 

thick.  thick. 

Slate-clay,  90ft.      9  Gravel,  6ft. 


2  Limestone,  30 

3  Slate-clay,  230 

4  Coal,  2 

5  Slate-clay,  120 

6  Coal,  15 

7  Slate-clay,  8 

8  Coal,  10 


10  Coal,  9 

11  Slate-clay,  27 

12  Slate-clay,  6 

13  Coal,  6 

14  Slate-clay,  21 

15  Coal,  (main,)  29 

16  Bituminous  shale,    7 


See  "  Origin  of,  and  Searching  for  Coal." 

Secondary  Limestone.  This  is  also  called  carboniferous, 
and  mountain  limestone.  Its  texture  is  compact,  and  not 
crystalline,  like  the  primitive  limestone  before  described. 
Its  prevailing  colors  are  gray,  or  yellowish  white,  but  it 
is  sometimes  bluish  or  black.  This  formation  is  some- 
times extensive,  underlaying  large  districts,  and  rising 
into  considerable  mountains.  The  hills  of  this  formation 
often  present  mural,  or  wall-like  precipices,  and  rocky, 
uneven  dales. 

It  is  considered  a  more  recent  rock  than  transition  lime- 
stone, and  is  often  composed,  almost  entirely  of  marine 
shells,  sometimes  only  slightly  adhering  together.  It  also 
contains  the  bones  of  animals,  chiefly  of  extinct  species, 
but  sometimes  of  those  now  living,  and  which  are  never 
found  in  the  transition  class.  It  is  often  difficult,  however, 
to  distinguish  this  rock  from  transition  limestone,  into 
which  it  insensibly  passes. 

Rock  Salt.  Although  this  salt  cannot  properly  be  class- 
ed as  a  rock,  yet  as  it  forms  considerable  beds,  and  is, 
withal,  an  important  article,  it  is  proper  to  describe  its 
geological  bearings  and  associations. 

In  its  impure  state,  as  it  is  raised  from  the  mine,  rock 
salt  is  in  large  solid  masses,  of  a  crystalline  structure,  with 
a  reddish  or  bluish  color.  When  pure,  as  it  sometimes 
occurs  in  the  mine,  it  is  perfectly  colorless  and  transparent, 
like  the  best  flint  glass. 


ORIGIN  OF  ROCK  SALT.  165 

Rock  salt  is  found  at  various  depths  below  the  surface. 
At  Cheshire,  in  England,  where  vast  quantities  are  raised, 
the  first  bed  is  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  deep,  and  sev- 
enty-eight feet  thick.  This  is  separated  from  the  next  bed 
by  a  stratum  of  clay-stone,  thirty  feet  thick.  The  lower 
bed  has  been  penetrated  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet,  but 
has  not  been  sunk  through. 

The  principal  known  deposites  of  salt,  are  those  of  Car- 
dona,  in  Spain ;  those  of  Hungary,  and  Poland ;  that  of 
Caramania,  in  Asia ;  the  extensive  formations  of  Germany 
and  Austria ;  those  on  each  side  of  the  Carpathian  moun- 
tains, and  those  of  South  America. 

According  to  the  traveller  Chardin,  rock  salt  is  so 
abundant  in  Caramania,  and  the  atmosphere  so  dry,  that 
the  inhabitants  sometimes  build  their  houses  of  it. 

Origin  of  Rock  Salt.  At  Posa,  in  Castile,  there  is  a 
deposite  of  rock  salt,  within  the  crater  of  an  extinct  vol- 
cano ;  and  in  the  island  of  Sicily,  there  exists  more  or  less 
of  the  same  mineral,  in  such  situations  as  to  indicate  that 
it  has  been  formed  by  the  evaporation  of  sea  water,  by 
volcanic  heat.  But  if  subterranean  heat  has  in  a  few  in- 
stances produced  salt  by  evaporation,  still  the  situation 
and  appearances  of  these  formations  generally,  are  such 
as  to  preclude  any  rational  supposition,  that  they  have  been 
formed  in  this  manner. 

The  most  natural  hypothesis  that  has  been  offered,  to 
account  for  the  existence  of  this  salt,  especially  in  certain 
situations,  is  that  which  attributes  it  to  the  gradual  evapo- 
ration of  pools,  or  lakes  of  salt  water  left  by  the  ocean, 
when  it  retired  from  the  present  continents,  in  consequence 
of  their  elevation.  This  theory,  too,  might  be  considered 
as  receiving  strong  support  from  the  fact,  that  in  some  of 
the  Polish  mines,  sea  shells,  the  claws  of  crabs,  and  vege- 
table impressions  have  been  found. 

But  on  the  contrary,  most  salt  mines  are  entirely  with- 
out any  organic,  or  other  remains,  by  which  any  gleam 
of  light  is  thrown  upon  the  history  of  their  origin.  Were 
these  formations  the  solid  matter,  left  by  the  desiccation  of 
salt  lakes,  we  should  suppose  that  fossil  sea  animals,  as  well 
as  shells,  ought  to  be  found  everywhere,  and  in  abundance. 
Another,  and  still  stronger  objection  to  this  hypothesis,  is 
the  great  purity  of  subterranean  salt,  when  compared  with 
that  obtained  bv  the  evaporation  of  sea  water. 


166  OYP6UM. 

With  the  exception  of  foreign  impurities,  such  as  clay 
and  sand,  rock  salt  is  nearly  pure  muriate  of  soda ;  while 
sea  Avater,  by  evaporation  produces  muriate  of  magnesia, 
and  sulphate  of  soda,  besides  muriate  of  soda.  The  mode 
in  which  rock  salt  is  disposed  in  the  earth,  is  also  against 
the  hypothesis  of  evaporation.  That  of  Cheshire,  instead 
of  being  in  strata,  is  found  in  distinct  concretions. 

To  these  difficulties,  it  may  be  added,  that  the  depth  of 
sea  water  required  to  produce  some  of  the  larger  masses 
of  rock  salt,  must  not  only  have  been  unfathomable,  but 
incomprehensible.  The  salt  hill  of  Cardona  is  663  feet 
in  height,  and  is  solid  muriate  of  soda.  Now,  according 
to  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Marcet,  500  grains  of  salt  water, 
yielded  21  1-2  grains  of  solid  matter,  of  which  13.3  parts 
were  muriate  of  soda.  From  10,000  parts  of  sea  water, 
Dr.  Murray  obtained  220  parts  of  common  salt.  Accord- 
ing to  such  data,  if  the  salt  of  Cardona  was  formed  in  a 
lake,  by  evaporation,  the  water  not  only  yielded  pure 
muriate  of  soda,  but  must  have  been  more  than  27,000 
feet,  or  more  than  five  miles  in  depth. 

Finally,  this  subject  appears  to  be  one  of  great  difficul- 
ty, for  although  geologists  have  made  the  theory  of  these 
formations  a  matter  of  much  interest  and  inquiry,  no  ra- 
tional hypothesis  concerning  them  has  yet  been  proposed. 

Gypsum.  Sulphate  of  Lime.  This  is  known  under  the 
name  of  Plaster  of  Paris,  and  is  so  common  as  to  need  no 
description.  This  substance,  like  rock  salt,  is  seldom 
found  in  extensive  formations.  It  occurs  both  with  primi- 
tive and  secondary  rocks,  and,  from  the  species  of  shells 
it  sometimes  contains,  has  been  considered  a  fresh  water 
formation.  Beds  of  gypsum  commonly  alternate  with 
those  of  marl  and  limestone. 

The  greatest  deposite  of  gypsum  described,  is  that  of 
Paris,  which  extends  about  twenty  leagues.  At  Mont- 
matre,  near  Paris,  two  formations  of  this  substance  may 
be  observed ;  the  lower  is  composed  of  alternate  beds  of 
little  thickness  consisting  of  gypsum,  often  crystalline, 
alternating  with  lime  and  clay-maris.  The  upper  forma- 
tion is  the  most  important  and  remarkable.  It  is  about 
sixty-five  feet  thick,  and,  in  some  places,  lies  immediately 
under  vegetable  mould.  This  is  especially  interesting, 
from  the  number  and  variety  of  organic  relics  it  contains, 
and  from  its  being  the  chief  source  whence  the  celebrated 


THICKNESS  OF  CHALK  BEDS.  167 

Cuvier  drew  ths  skeletons  of  so  many  extinct  species  of 
animals. — See  Organic  Remains, 

Chalk.  In  England,  chalk  is  a  very  important  forma- 
tion, both  on  account  of  its  extent  and  its  perfectly  dis- 
tinctive characters.  It  is  also  found  in  France,  Ireland, 
Spain,  Germany,  Italy,  and  Poland  ;  but  it  is  a  singular 
fact,  that  no  deposites  of  chalk  have  been  found  beyond  the 
limits  of  Europe.  In  the  New  World,  through  the  whole 
extent  of  the  two  Americas,  not  a  specimen  of  chalk  has 
been  found. 

The  chemical  properties  of  chalk  are  those  of  carbon- 
ate of  lime,  vi£.,  lime  56;  carbonic  acid  44=100.  When 
well  burned,  chalk  is  said  to  make  as  good  quick-lime  as 
the  hardest  marble.  In  the  Isle  of  Wight,  the  harder 
kinds  are  employed  as  building  stones ;  and,  at  Dover, 
chalk  is  used  in  the  construction  of  docks,  or  other  ma- 
sonry, which  is  covered  by  the  water.  Some  very  ancient 
buildings  are  constructed  of  this  material,  and  among  them 
the  abbey  of  St.  Omar,  in  France,  which  is  said  still  to 
retain  all  its  beautiful  Gothic  ornaments  in  great  perfec- 
tion. 

With  respect  to  the  antiquity  of  chalk,  it  is  considered  a 
more  recent  formation  than  coal,  and  between  it  and  the 
tertiary,  or  newer  secondary  formations. 

Beds  of  chalk  generally  contain  nodules  of  flint  and  or- 
ganic remains,  especially  those  of  shells,  sponge,  star-fish, 
madrepores,  &c. ;  but  some  beds  are  entirely  without  flints. 
Countries  underlaid  with  chalk  are  generally  far  from 
being  flat  or  level,  but,  on  the  contrary,  are  remarkable 
for  their  undulations  of  surface,  the  hills  having  smooth 
rounded  outlines,  with  deep  indentations,  or  hollows,  in 
their  sides. 

Thickness  of  Chalk  Beds.  Chalk  beds  vary  in  thick- 
ness from  a  few  inches  to  1000  feet  or  more.  At  Dover, 
the  beds  containing  flints  are  about  500  feet  thick,  and 
those  without  flints  140  feet  thick.  At  Culver  clif£  in  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  where  these  beds  are  disposed  vertically, 
and  where  Mr.  Coneybeare  says  there  is  the  best  oppor- 
tunity afforded  to  ascertain  their  thickness,  this  has  been 
found  about  1300  feet.  But,  generally,  this  formation  in 
England  varies  from  600  to  1000  feet  in  thickness. 


168  LIAS. 

Oolite.  This  is  also  called  Roestone,  oecause  it  is  com- 
posed of  small  globules  resembling  the  roe  of  fishes.  It 
has  generally  a  yellowish  brown,  or  ochery  color.  It  is  a 
variety  of  common  limestone,  from  which  it  does  not  differ 
in  composition.  These  globules  do  not,  however,  in  all 
cases,  compose  the  entire  mass;  sometimes  they  appear  to 
be  imbedded  in  solid  limestone,  and,  in  other  instances, 
they  are  wanting  entirely. 

In  England,  this  formation  is  superincumbent  on  chalk, 
and  often  contains  shells  and  other  organic  remains.  It 
is  employed  as  a  building  stone.  St.  Paul's  church  and 
Somerset  house  being  constructed  of  this  material.  It  is, 
however,  said  not  to  be  a  durable  stone. 

With  respect  to  the  manner  in  which  these  globules 
were  formed,  Mr.  Bakewell  remarks,  that  it  is  not  yet  as- 
certained whether  they  have  resulted  from  a  tendency  to 
crystalline  arrangement,  or  whether  they  are  of  animal 
origin.  We  should  think  neither  would  account  for  them  ; 
but  that  they  were  formed  in  springs,  or  rather  running 
water,  containing  lime,  by  a  gradual  deposition  of  carbon- 
aceous particles  on  a  small  nucleus,  as  a  grain  of  sand, 
kept  in  agitation  by  the  stream. 

Lias.  This  name  is  said  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  word 
layers,  because  this  rock  is  usually  stratified.  It  is  one  of 
the  Oolitic  group,  and  passes  by  insensible  shades  into 
Oolite.  It  is  an  argillaceous  limestone,  usually  found  in 
the  conformable  position.  It  retains  a  uniform  mineraio- 
gical  character  throughout  a  great  portion  of  England, 
France,  and  Germany.  It  is  often  rich  in  organic  remains, 
and  especially  of  the  saurian  reptiles. 

In  this  country  it  is  described  by  Dr.  Hildreth  as  ex- 
isting on  the  Little  Muskingum,  in  Ohio.  Color  yellow- 
ish white  when  exposed  to  the  air,  but  grayish  white 
when  taken  from  the  bed ;  structure  compact,  fracture  con- 
choidal,  with  an  earthy  surface ;  adheres  to  the  tongue ; 
composition,  carbonate  of  lime,  with  a  little  carburet  of 
iron.  In  properties  and  appearance  it  approaches  nearly 
to  chalk. 

Dr.  Hildreth  says,  "  that  it  stands  the  weather  without 
exfoliation,  and  would  make  a  most  beautiful  building 
stone." 

The  associations  of  this  rock,  in  Ohio,  will  be  seen  by 
the  diagram,  fig.  20. 


LIAS. 


169 


Fig.  20, 


frro 
9 


Order  of  the  series  ascending. 


1.  Limestone;    compact,   dark,    and    in   strata,   from 
six  inches,  to  two  feet  in  thickness.     This  bed  is  eight  feet 
thick. 

2.  Bituminous  Coal,  very  pure ;  structure  slaty ;  three 
feet  thick. 

3.  Water  lime,  in   thin  beds  reposing   on  the  coal. 
Thickness,  six  feet. 

4.  A    Chloritic   rock;   color  deep,   almost   verdigris 
green.     Four  feet  thick. 

5.  Lias,  which  we  have  already  described. 

6.  Calcareous  tufa.     It  is  porous,  as  if  pierced  in  all 
directions  by  small  worms.     Six  feet  thick. 

7.  Hard  sparry  limestone,  of  a  light  dove  color,  tinged 
with  brown.     Thirty  feet  thick. 

8.  Sandstone,  the  lower  part  in  strata  of  a  few  inches 
thick,  and  contains  some  fossil  remains.     100  feet  thick. 

15 


170  YOLCANIC    AND    BASALTIC    ROCKS. 

9.     Argillaceous,  loamy  soil,  rich,  and  covered  with 
timber.     Ten  feet  thick. 


TERTIARY    STRATA. 

The  Tertiary,  or  third  formation,  as  the  name  indicates, 
was  deposited  after  the  secondary,  and  may  be  considered 
as  proceeding  from  the  disintegration  of  this  and  the  pri- 
mary series. 

With  respect  to  its  relative  antiquity,  the  tertiary  is 
newer  than  chalk,  and  older  than  the  Diluvial  and  Allu- 
vial deposites.  When  these,  therefore  occur  in  the  series 
the  tertiary  formations  are  between  the  chalk  and  the  di- 
luvium. 

The  Tertiary  strata  consists  of  beds  of  clay,  sand,  marl, 
pudding-stones,  and  the  newer  limestone  deposites,  such 
as  are  found  in  the  Paris  basin,  and  in  the  Isle  of  Wight. 
These  formations  often  contain  abundance  of  fossil  shells 
and  plants,  together  with  the  bones  of  fish  and  quadru- 
peds. The  famous  locality  of  fossil  fish  at  Monte  Bolca, 
in  Italy,  is  in  tertiary  strata. 

In  North  America  this  formation  is  very  extensive,  rea- 
ching without  interruption  along  the  sea  coast  from  Long 
Island  to  Louisiana  and  extending  in  some  parts  several 
hundred  miles  inland.  It  consists  of  sand  and  clay  often 
mixed  with  an  abundance  of  sea  shells.  The  valley  of 
the  Connecticut  is  in  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  same 
formation,  consisting  of  sand  and  clay,  though  the  shells 
are  absent.  The  whole^of  Long  Island,  Martha's  Vine- 
yard, and  Nantucket  are  also  tertiary  formations.  In  gen- 
eral, tertiary  strata  show  no  marks  of  disturbance,  being 
deposited  since  the  lower  rocks  were  disrupted. 


VOLCANIC    AND    BASALTIC    ROCKS. 

These  owe  their  origin  to  volcanic  fire,  and  have  been 
either  ejected  from  burning  mountains,  or  forced  up  to  the 
surface  of  the  earth  in  a  melted  state  by  volcanic  action. 
Some  of  these  rocks  occasionally  cover  all  the  formations 
hitherto  described,  and  as  volcanoes  are  still  active,  they 


BASALT.       GREENSTONE.  171 

may  and  indeed  do,  cover  the  most  recent  deposites  of  sand 
and  gravel. 

This  division  is  known  under  the  name  of  unstratifted 
rocks,  which  also  includes  granite.  Many  geologists  sup- 
pose that  granite  also  had  an  igneous  origin ;  and  this  in- 
deed appears  to  be  the  prevailing  opinion  of  the  ablest 
writers  of  the  day. 

Basaltic  or  Trap  rocks,  including  also  those  formed  of 
lava,  cover  the  other  formations,  in  a  very  irregular,  and 
uncertain  manner.  In  France,  large  districts  of  country 
are  buried  under  ancient  lava,  and  the  northern  parts  of 
Great  Britain  abound  with  basaltic  rocks. 

The  word  trap,  is  said  to  come  from  the  Swedish  trap- 
pa,  which  signifies  a  stair,  or  step,  because  rocks  of  this 
kind  often  separate  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  stairs. 

The  application  of  this  term  is  far  from  being  definite, 
some  geologists  meaning  by  it  such  unstratified  rocks  as 
basalt,  greenstone,  porphyry,  and  their  associates ;  while 
others  have  confined  it  to  such  rocks  as  are  chiefly  com- 
posed of  hornblende,  whether  stratified  or  not.  The  for- 
mer application  of  this  term  is  undoubtedly  the  most  com- 
mon and  appropriate. 

The  most  important  volcanic  rocks  are  Basalt,  Green- 
stone, and  Lava. 

Basalt.  The  color  of  this  rock  is  dark  grayish  black, 
or  brownish  gray.  It  is  found  in  large  shapeless  masses, 
or  in  columnar  prisms,  with  from  three  to  nine  faces. 
These  columns  are  of  all  sizes,  from  a  few  inches  to  sev- 
eral feet  in  diameter,  and  sometimes  four  hundred  feet  in 
height.  They  are  composed  of  joints,  or  blocks  of  the 
same  angular  shapes,  resting  one  upon  another.  The 
texture  of  basalt  is  fine  grained,  or  compact,  and  it  often 
contains  other  minerals  imbedded  in  it,  such  as  felspar, 
quartz,  mica,  leucite,  and  oxide  of  iron.  It  also  exhibits 
hollow  cavities,  or  vesicles,  apparently  formed  by  bubbles 
of  air  during  its  fusion.  The  Giant's  Causeway  in  the 
North  of  Ireland,  is  composed  of  basaltic  columns. 

Greenstone.  This  is  a  compact,  hard,  tenacious  rock 
of  a  dark  grayish  color,  with  a  greenish  tinge.  It  is  es- 
sentially composed  of  hornblende  and  felspar.  This  rock 
occurs  in  beds  of  greater  or  less  extent,  sometimes  forming 
extensive  ranges  of  mountains.  In  this  country  green- 


172  DILUVIUM. 

stone  is  a  common  rock.  The  range  of  mountains  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Connecticut,  reaching  from  New-Haven 
to  Northampton,  is  of  this  rock.  In  some  places,  their 
height  is  several  hundred  feet.  These  rocks,  as  will  be 
seen  in  another  place,  are  undoubtedly  of  volcanic  origin, 
having  been  elevated  to  their  present  situation  through 
fissures,  by  the  force  of  subterranean  fire. 

Lava.  This  term  comes  from  the  Gothic,  and  signifies 
to  run,  in  reference  to  the  flowing  of  volcanic  matter. 

The  products  of  volcanic  mountains  often  present  very 
different  appearances,  and  hence  have  received  several 
names,  as  volcanic  slags,  volcanic  enamel,  cellular  lava, 
compact  lava,  pumice,  &c.  But  in  general  terms,  all  the 
liquified  products  of  volcanoes  are  called  lava,  and  for  the 
purposes  of  elementary  geology,  this  definition  is  perhaps 
sufficient. 

The  colors  of  lava  are  most  commonly  yellowish,  or 
greenish  gray  sometimes  running  into  sulphur  yellow, 
and  grayish  black.  Some  are  compact,  while  others  are 
full  of  small  pores,  and  others  are  fibrous  with  a  silky 
lustre  ;»Jbut  all  the  different  kinds  run  into  each  other,  so 
that  it  is  often  difficult  to  make  distinctions  between  them. 


DILUVIUM. 


Diluvia,  or  diluvial  deposites,  are  generally  supposed 
to  have  been  formed  during  the  general  deluge.  They 
consist  of  sand,  pebbles,  and  blocks,  or  fragments  of  va- 
rious kinds  of  rocks,  not  generally  existing  in  the  districts 
where  these  deposites  are  found  at  the  present  day,  and 
hence  they  must  have  been  transported  from  a  distance. 
In  many  instances,  the  diluvial  rocks  appear  to  have 
been  moved  from  great  distances,  their  dimensions  and 
situations  at  the  same  time  indicating  a  water  power  of 
much  greater  force,  than  any  which  has  been  described, 
except  the  Noachian  deluge,  and  it  is  therefore  consider- 
ed reasonable  to  attribute  these  effects  to  that  cause. — See 
Deluge. 


TABULAR  VIEW  OF  ROCKS,  AC.  173 


ALLUVION. 

Alluvia,  or  Alluvial  deposites,  are  such  accumulations 
of  sand,  mud,  and  soil,  together  with  fragments  of  wood, 
as  are  constantly  forming  at  the  present  day,  by  the  cur- 
rents of  rivers  and  brooks,  or  by  the  rain  which  falls  on 
hills  and  mountains.  These  are  formed  by  causes  now 
constantly  operating,  and  we  have  shown  that  considera- 
ble changes  have  been  wrought  on  the  earth  by  such 
causes. 

We  have  now  given  a  short  account  of  each  formation, 
and  species  of  rock  which  compose  the  great  bulk  of  the 
earth.  There  are,  however,  several  rocks  described  in 
more  extended  treatises  on  this  subject  which  we  have 
omitted,  and  which  occasionally  form  considerable  hills, 
or  underlay  certain  districts  of  country.  This  deficiency, 
with  respect  to  names,  will  be  supplied  by  the  following 
view  of  M.  Boue's  classification  of  rocks,  corrected  and  ex- 
tended by  Dr.  Ure,  of  Glasgow.  This  contains  the  names 
of  all  the  known  members  of  each  class,  and  by  it  the  stu- 
dent will  be  enabled  to  observe  the  synonymous  terms,  with 
the  classification  we  have  employed. 


TABULAR  VIEW  OF  ROCKS  AND  MINERAL  STRATA. 

Class  I. — PRIMITIVE  OR  INFERIOR  Concomitants. 
ROCKS. 

Order  I. — Gneiss.  Granite, 

Hornblende  rocks. 
Limestone, 
Quartz-rock, 
Gypsum. 

Order  II. — Mica-Slate.  Mica-slate, 

Porphyry. 

Order  III.— Clay  Slate.  Talc-slate, 

Chlorite-slate, 
Gneiss, 
Whet-slate, 
Alum-slate, 
15* 


174         TABULAR  VIEW  OF  ROCKS,  AC. 

Dolomite, 
Gypsum. 


Class  II.  —  TRANSITION  OR  SUPER- 
MEDIAL  ROCKS. 

Order  I.  —  Graywacke.  Conglomerate, 

Clay-slate, 
Flinty-slate, 
Alum-slate, 
Limestone, 
Dolomite. 


Class  III. — MEDIAL  OR  CARBONI- 
FEROUS ROCKS. 

Order  I. — Old  Red  Sandstone. 

II. — Mountain      Lime- 
stone. 

III. — Millstone  grit. 

IV. — Coal  Strata.  Coal  Sandstone, 

Slaty-clay, 
Bituminous  Shale, 
Coal, 

Carbonate  of  Iron, 
Calcareous  Marl, 
Compact  Limestone. 


ClaSS  IV. SUBMEDIAL  OR  SECOND- 
ARY ROCKS. 

Order  L — New  Red  Sandstone. 

Order   II. — Magnesian  Lime-  Bituminous       Marl- 
stone.  slate. 

Copper    Slate,    with 

Flints, 
Breccia-like  Gypsum. 


TABULAR  VIEW  OF  ROCKS,  *C.  175 

Order  III. — Red  Marl.  Gypsum  and  Salt, 

Variegated  sandstone. 

Order  IV. — Shell  Limestone,  In  Germany  called 
or  second  flat  Muschelkalk,  said 
Limestone,  to  be  wanting  in 

England. 

Order  V. — Third  flat  Lime-  Argillaceous  beds, 
stone,   or  Jura  Lias  of  England, 
Limestone.  Oolite,  or  calcareous 

Freestone, 
Marls. 

Order   VI.— Iron    Sand  and  Chlorite  Chalk. 
Green  Sand. 

Order  VII.— Chalk.  Chalk  Marl, 

Chalk  with  flints. 


Class  V. — SUPERIOR  OR  TERTIARY 
ROCKS. 

Order  I. — London,  Paris,  and  Plastic  Clay, 
Isle  of  Wight  ba-  Clay-marl, 
sins.  Sand,  lignite,  and  salt 

water  shells. 

Order     II.— First      Tertiary  Blue  London  Clay, 
Limestone.  Chloritic  Limestone. 

Order  III. — First  Local  brack-  Marls, 

ish  water  deposite.  Gypsum. 

Order  IV. — Second   Tertiary  Marls, 

Limestone.  Burh-stones  of  Parii 

basin,  and  Isle  of 
Wight. 


Class  VI. — VOLCANIC  PRODUCTS. 


176          COMPARATIVE  AGES  OF  ROCKS. 

Order  I. — Basaltic  Rocks.          Basalt, 

Greenstone, 
Porphyry. 

Order  IL — Lava.  Lava, 

Pumice. 


It  will  be  observed  in  this  classification,  that  the  same 
formation  or  kind  of  rock  sometimes  occurs  more  than 
once,  or  is  arranged  under  several  different  classes  or  or- 
ders. Thus  limestone  is  sometimes  primitive,  at  others, 
transition,  secondary,  or  tertiary;  and  clay-slate  and  sand- 
stone are  sometimes  associated  with  one  formation,  and 
sometimes  with  another.  When,  therefore,  a  rock,  under 
the  same  name,  is  supposed,  by  its  associations,  to  have 
been  formed  at  different  periods,  it  is  classed  severally  with 
those  of  its  own  age.  Thus  limestone  is  of  all  ages,  and 
consequently  belongs  to  all  the  classes,  except  the  volcanic. 
The  same  is  more  or  less  the  case  with  sandstone  and  clay- 
slate,  and  several  others. 


COMPARATIVE  AGES  OF  ROCKS. 

We  have  already  noticed,  under  the  descriptions  of  the 
different  formations,  their  relative  ages,  but  a  recapitulation 
is  required  in  order  to  bring  this  subject  distinctly  before 
the  reader.  . 

It  requires  no  arguments  to  show  that  the  lowest  forma- 
tions must  be  the  oldest,  since  these  must  have  been  depos- 
ited before  those  which  lie  above,  or  upon  them.  It  is  true 
that  a  mountain  of  granite,  when  shaken,  or  uplifted  by  an 
earthquake,  may  fall  and  spread  its  ruins  on  the  plain  be- 
low, but  such  an  occurrence  would  readily  be  detected, 
since  the  situation  of  its  fragments  would  show  that  this 
was  not  an  original  and  undisturbed  formation. 

Granite  and  its  associates,  besides  being  placed  lowest 
in  the  order  of  position,  are,  as  we  have  already  seen,  en- 
tirely destitute  of  organic  remains.  It  ought,  however,  to 
be  noticed  that  Dr.  Macculloch,  in  a  single  instance,  in 
one  of  the  Hebrides,  observed  gneiss  overlaying  a  bed  of 
limestone,  which  contained  bivalve  shells.  But  the  ex- 


COMPARATIVE  AGES  OF  ROCKS.  177 

treme  contortions  of  the  gneiss,  on  that  island,  are  suffi- 
cient to  show  that  a  bed,  really  superior  in  its  general  po- 
sition, may  appear  to  be  inferior  at  some  particular  points 
Fig.  21.  Thus  let  a  a  a,  fig.  2 1 , 

be  the  contorted  sub- 
stratum of  gneiss,  and 
b,  c,  d,  e,  a  superior 
and  incumbent  bed  of 
organic  limestone, 
following  its  flexures. 
j  Now  it  is  clear,  that 
if  these  beds  be  visi- 
ble only  at  the  point  d,  the  limestone  will  appear  to  be  be- 
low the  gneiss,  though  the  error  would  readily  be  correct- 
ed by  an  examination  at  any  other  point. 

Such  apparent  exceptions  do  not,  however,  affect  the 
general  fact,  for  nothing  in  geology  is  more  clearly  estab- 
lished, than  that  granite,  and  its  associates,  lie  below  all 
other  rocks,  and  hence  must  be  older  than  any  of  their 
super-strata. 

The  transition  rocks  come  next  to  granite,  with  respect 
to  position,  and,  consequently,  with  respect  to  antiquity. 
In  these,  organic  remains  begin  to  occur,  as  plants  and 
shells. 

Next  to  these  are  the  lower,  and  then  the  upper  second- 
ary rocks.  In  these  are  found  fossil  relics  in  great  quan- 
tities, as  shells,  fish,  and  some  of  the  amphibious  tribes. 

Above  the  secondary  come  the  tertiary  strata,  and  in 
these  formations,  are  found  the  bones  of  quadrupeds  of  ex- 
tinct species. 

Volcanic  products  are  both  of  ancient  and  modern  date. 
Diluvial  deposites  are  supposed  to  be  of  no  greater  an- 
tiquity than  the  Noachian  deluge,  having  been  formed  en- 
tirely by  that  catastrophe.  In  these,  the  remains  of  huge 
quadrupeds,  as  the  elephant,  mastodon,  and  rhinoceros,  are 
found. 

Alluvial  products  are  the  most  recent  in  the  order  of 
strata ;  being,  like  volcanic  products,  constantly  forming. 


STRATA  AND  STRATIFICATION. 

Most  secondary,  and  several  primitive  rocks,  are  com- 
posed of  layers,  or  portions,  resting  one  above  another, 


178  STRATA  AND  STRATIFICATION. 

with  seams  between  them.  These  portions,  or  layers,  ar<s 
called  strata,  and  formations  of  this  kind  are.  called  strat- 
ified. In  general,  such  rocks  are  fissile,  and  may  be  divi- 
ded into  flat  tables,  or  layers,  in  the  direction  of  their  strata. 
These  rocks  have  apparently  been  formed  by  gradual  de- 
positions from  water,  accumulated  one  upon  the  other. 
Unstratified  rocks  show  no  signs  of  such  gradual  accumu- 
lation ;  they  present  no  lines  of  stratification,  nor  are  they 
fissile  in  one  direction  more  than  in  another;  such  are 
granite,  greenstone,  and  basalt. 

Strata  are  said  to 

FlS-  •*  be  horizontal,  when 

tfley  coincide  with 
the  direction  of  the 
horizon,  or  have  lit- 


as  represented  by  fig.  22.  It  is  very  rare,  however,  that 
such  strata  are  found,  except  among  the  most  recent  de- 
posites,  the  secondary  or  tertiary  strata,  in  nearly  every  in- 
stance being  more  or  less  inclined. 

Dip.  The  inclination  of  strata  from  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion is  called  their  dip,  the  amount  of  the  dip  being  the 
quantity  of  the  angle,  which  the  line  of  inclination  makes 
with  that  of  the  horizon.      This  is  represented  by  fig.  23. 
Fig.  23.  If  the  angle  made 

by  the  meeting  of 

*  /£^^**^£^  the    lines    of    the 

strata,  b  b,  and  the 
-a  horizontal  line  a,  be 
equal  to  45°  towards  the  east,  then  the  strata  are  said  to 
dip  45°  in  that  direction. 

Outcrop.  When  strata  protrude  above  the  surface,  or 
are  uncovered,  as  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  so  as  to  be  seen, 
they  are  said  to  crop  out.  The  uncovered  ends  of  the 
strata  commonly  rise  above  each  other,  like  stairs,  or,  as 
Mr.  Bakewell  has  it,  like  a  number  of  slices  of  bread  and 
butter,  laid  inclined  on  a  plate.  In  fig.  23,  the  outcrop  of 
strata  is  represented  at  b  b.  Outcrop  is  a  matter  of  much 
importance  to  geologists  and  practical  miners,  since  the 
upper,  as  well  as  the  under,  strata  may  be  observed  at  these 
points ;  and  thus,  without  excavations  or  borings,  not  only 
the  dip  can  be  ascertained,  but  also  the  different  kinds  of 
rock  with  which  a  country  is  underlaid. 


STRATA    AND    STRATIFICATION.  179 

Outlier.  Strata  are  said  to  form  outliers,  when  they 
constitute  a  portion  of  country  detached  from  the  main 
mass  of  the  same  bed  of 
which  they  evidently  once 
formed  a  part.  Thus  the 
hed  b,  fig.  24,  on  the  top 
of  the  hill,  is  an  outlier  of 
'the  main  stratum  a,  the 
intervening  valley  being  scooped  out,  either  by  the  general 
deluge,  or  some  other  means.  The  kind,  and  thickness, 
as  well  as  the  range  of  the  intercepted  strata,  are  sufficient 
to  prove  that  they  were  once  continuous. 

Escarpment.  Strata  are  said  to  terminate  in  an  escarp- 
ment, when  they  end  abruptly,  as  at  a  b,  fig.  24. 

Mural  precipice.  Mural  signifies  wall-like,  and  rocks 
are  said  to  form  such  precipices,  when  they  present  naked, 
and  nearly  perpendicular  faces. 

(Conformable  position.     Strata  are  said  to  be  conforma- 
ble, when  their  gene- 

Fig'  ^  rai  planes  are  parallel, 

whatever  their  dip  may 
be.  Fig.  25,  a  a,  repre- 
sents conformable  stra- 
ta, as  shown  by  their 
parallel  planes. 


Unconformable  Strata.  When  a  series  of  upper  strata, 
rest  on  a  lower  formation,  without  any  conformity  to  the 
position  of  the  latter,  the  upper  series  is  called  unconform- 
able,  as  represented  at  b  b,  fig.  25. 

Fault.  This  is  such  a  dislocation  of  the  strata,  that  not 
only  their  continuity  is  destroyed,  but  the  series  of  beds  on 
one  or  both  sides  of  the  fractures,  are  forced  out  of  their 
original  positions,  so  that  it  often  happens  in  mining  for 
coal,  the  workmen  suddenly  come  to  the  apparent  termina- 
tion of  the  vein  by  a  wall  of  rock. 

Dyke.  This  is  a  wall  of  rock  interposed  between  the 
two  sides,  or  ends  of  a  dislocation,  and  in  consequence  of 
which,  the  continuity  of  the  beds  or  strata  are  interrupted. 


180  DYKES. 

If  we  suppose  that  the  dyke  was  once  fused  matter,  forced 
tip  from  beneath,  and  that  on  one  of  its  sides  the  strata 
were  elevated,  or  on  the  other  depressed  by  a  subterranean 
convulsion.it  would  account  for  the  phenomena  both  of  the 
fault  and  the  dyke. 

Fjo.  2g  Fig.   26  will  make  this 

understood,  a  a,  represents 
the  fault,  and  b  the  dyke. 
The  coal  strata  a,  termin- 
ates at  the  dyke  on  both 
sides;  but  on  "the  one  side 
it  is  raised,  and  on  the  other 
sunk  down.  When  there- 
fore the  workmen  search  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  dyke, 
for  the  coal  vein,  they  find  instead  of  coal,  perhaps  sand- 
stone or  clay,  and  thus  for  a  time,  the  work  of  the  mine 
is  entirely  suspended,  the  coal  being  lost.  In  attempting 
to  regain  the  vein,  the  first  question  to  be  determined  is, 
whether  it  has  been  thrown  up,  or  cast  down  on  the  other 
side  of  the  dyke;  and  this  in  general,  is  readily  decided 
by  the  position  of  the  dyke,  or  its  inclination  with  res- 
pect to  the  fault.  For  experience  has  shown,  that  if  the 
dyke  makes  an  acute  angle  with  the  upper  surface  of  the 
coal  vein,  the  strata  are  elevated  on  that  side,  while  if  the 
angle  is  obtuse,  they  are  thrown  down,  as  represented  by 
fig.  26. 

In  some  coal  fields,  the  strata  are  raised  or  depressed 
on  one  side  of  the  dyke,  to  the  extent  of  four  or  five  hun- 
dred feet. 

Dykes  which  intercept  coal  strata  are  most  frequently 
composed  of  basalt,  but  sometimes  of  indurated  clay. 
They  are,  in  thickness,  from  a  few  inches  to  fifty  or  sixty 
feet,  and  in  a  few  instances  are  three  hundred  feet  thick. 
Dykes  are  seldom  noticed  except  in  mining  districts, 
where  they  excite  much  interest  in  consequence  of  the  dis- 
turbances they  occasion  to  coal  veins.  Their  extent  there- 
fore is  generally  quite  uncertain,  though  in  some  instances 
they  are  known  to  traverse  large  sections  of  country. 

Dykes  being  generally  impervious  to  water,  they  ob- 
struct its  passage  along  the  porous  strata,  and  occasion  it 
to  rise  towards  the  surface;  hence  it  frequently  happens 
that  numerous  springs  make  their  appearance  along  the 
course  of  a  dyke,  which  is  entirely  under  ground,  and  by 
which  alone  its  existence  is  indicated. 


SLATY    STRtiCTURt.  181 

Slaty  Structure.  Professor  Sedgwick  has  made  some 
curious  and  important  observations  on  the  difference  be' 
tween  the  planes  of  stratification  and  those  of  cleavage,  as 
applicable  particularly  to  the  roofing-slate  of  Wales. 

In  mica-slate,  the  cleavage  is  in  the  direction  of  the 
strata  of  deposition,  whether  the  layers  are  curved  or  not, 
and  the  same  is  the  case  with  common  clay-slate,  and  in 
depositions  of  clay  which  are  separable  in  layers.  In 
beds  of  roof-slate  the  case  is  quite  different,  the  cleavage 
being  not  in  the  direction  of  the  strata,  but  in  general, 
obliquely  across  them.  The  strata  are  seldom  or  never 
either  horizontal  or  straight,  but  contorted,  bent,  or 
waved,  and  are  often  far  from  being  parallel  with  each 
other. 

Fig.  27. 


Professor  Sedgwick  gives  the  diagram,  fig.  27,  in  illus- 
tration of  this  subject,  and  remarks,  "that  the  contortions 
of  slate  rocks  are  phenomena  quite  different  from  clea- 
vage, and  the  curves  presented  by  such  formations  are  the 
true  lines  of  disturbed  strata."  The  contorted  lines  run- 
ning lengthwise  the  diagram,  are  the  true  strata,  while 
those  crossing  these  in  nearly  a  vertical  direction,  and 
preserving  almost  a  geometrical  parallelism,  are  the  lines 
of  cleavage.  A  region  of  more  than  thirty  miles  in  length, 
and  eight  or  ten  in  breadth,  exhibits  this  structure  on  a 
magnificent  scale.  Many  of  the  contorted  strata  are  of  a 
coarse  mechanical  structure;  but  subordinate  to  them  are 
fine  crystalline,  chloritic  slates.  But  the  coarser  beds  and 
the  finer,  the  twisted  and  the  straight,  have  all  been  sub- 
jected to  one  change.  Crystalline  forces  have  re-arranged 
whole  mountain  masses  of  them,  producing  a  beautiful 
crystalline  cleavage,  passing  alike  through  all  the  strata ; 
and  through  all  this  region,  whatever  may  be  the  contor- 
tions, the  planes  of  cleavage  pass  on,  generally  without 
deviation,  running  in  parallel  lines  from  one  end  to  the 
other. 

"  Without  considering  the  crystalline  flakes  along  the 
planes  of  cleavage,  which  prove  that  crystalline  action 
16 


182  FORM    OF    COAL    BEDS. 

has  modified  the  whole  mass,  we  may  affirm,  that  no  re- 
treat of  parts,  no  contraction  in  dimensions,  in  passing  to 
a  solid  slate,  can  explain  such  phenomena  as  these.  They 
appear  to  me  only  resolvable  on  the  supposition,  that 
crystalline,  or  polar  forces,  acted  on  the  whole  mass  sim- 
ultaneously, in  giving  directions,  and  with  adequate 
power." 


There  is  no  subject,  within  the  range  of  geology,  of 
more  importance  than  the  natural  history  of  coal,  since 
the  inhabitants  of  some  countries  are  almost  entirely  de- 
pendent on  its  existence  and  quantity,  for  the  comforts 
they  enjoy  during  the  cold  season. 

We  have  already  described  this  mineral,  and  given 
some  account  of  its  manner  of  existence,  when  treating  of 
rocks  and  formations  generally.  It  remains  here  to  give 
a  more  general  and  extended  account  of  this  important 
article,  and  to  point  out  its  indications,  origin,  associa- 
tions, &c. 

Form  of  Coal  Reds.  Nearly  all  coal  formations  are 
basin-shaped,  or  in  that  form,  as  before  stated,  which 
would  arise  from  a  deposition  of  strata  in  lakes,  or  ponds, 
of  various  depths.  Mr.  Bakewell  compares  the  shape  to 
that  of  a  muscle  shell.  "  The  position  of  coal  strata," 
says  he,  "  in  many  coal  fields,  may  be  represented  by  a 
series  of  fresh  water  muscle  shells,  decreasing  in  size,  laid 
within  each  other,  but  separated  by  a  thin  paste  of  clay. 
If  one  side  of  the  shell  be  raised,  it  will  represent  the 
general  rise  of  the  strata  in  that  direction,  and  if  the 
whole  series  be  dislocated  by  partial  cracks,  raising  one 
part  a  little,  and  depressing  the  other,  to  represent  faults 
in  the  coal,  it  will  give  a  better  idea  of  the  coal  field  than 
any  description  can  convey." 

"  We  are  here  to  suppose  that  each  shell  represents  a 
stratum  of  coal,  and  the  partitions  of  clay,  the  earthy  stra- 
ta by  which  they  are  separated.  The  outer  or  lower 
shell,  represents  the  lowest  bed  of  coal,  which  may  be 
many  miles  in  extent.  Now  if  a  much  larger  shell  be  filled 
•with  sand,  and  th-e  lower  shell  pressed  into  it,  we  may 


SEARCHING  FOR  COAL.  183 

consider  the  large  shell  to  represent  limestone,  and  the 
sand,  grit  stone;  we  shall  have  a  model  of  the  coal  strata 
in  many  parts  of  England,  and  their  situation  over  the 
metaliferous  lime,  with  the  beds  of  sandstone  by  which 
they  are  separated  from  it." — Geology,  p.  117. 

Searching  for  Coal  Inmost  instances,  the  inclination, 
or  bending  of  coal  strata,  is  such  that  the  veins  rise  nearly 
to  the  surface,  and  would  be  visible,  were  they  not  cover- 
ed by  the  soil  or  gravel.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  re- 
moval of  the  soil  by  rivulets,  or  the  accidental  slide  of  a 
side  hill  will  uncover  the  strata,  so  that  their  dip  and 
thickness  can  be  determined.  This  is  considered  a  very 
fortunate  circumstance,  because  the  boring  for  coal,  with- 
out some  such  indications  that  it  exists  in  greater  or  less 
quantities,  even  in  coal  districts,  is  a  very  uncertain  means 
of  its  discovery.  Sometimes  borings  to  great  depths 
have  been  made  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  large  coal 
fields,  without  producing  any  greater  conviction  of  the 
existence  of  the  mineral,  than  the  surface1  before  indi- 
cated. 

Fig.  28.  The  cause  of  this  will  be  seen 

by  fig.  28,  where  suppose  1  is 
the  coal  vein,  and  2  a  stratum  of 
sandstone,  below  which  is  lime- 
stone, and  that  the  basin  is  filled 
to  the  surface  with  slate,  clay,  &c. 
Now,  on  boring  at  2,  it  is  evident 
that  nothing  but  sandstone  and  limestone  would  be  found, 
though  it  might  be  within  a  few  feet  of  the  coal  vein, 
while  had  the  examination  happened  to  have  been  made 
at  1,  coal  would  have  been  found  within  a  few  feet  of  the 
surface. 

Where  a  coal  stratum  comes  to  the  surface,  it  is  gener- 
ally in  a  decomposed  state,  and  so  mixed  with  the  earth 
as  to  present  no  other  appearance  of  coal  than  a  darker 
color,  when  compared  with  the  surrounding  soil.  Hence 
the  real  quality  of  the  coal  cannot  be  determined  until  it 
is  taken  from  below  the  influence  of  the  weather,  and,  in 
general,  its  quality  improves  as  it  sinks  deeper  into  the 
earth. 

In  examinations  for  coal,  the  dip  and  direction  of  the 
strata  in  the  vicinity,  when  known,  should  be  carefully 
observed ;  for  if  the  dip  is  towards  the  estate  on  which  the 


IS4  INDICATIONS  OF  COAL. 

trial  is  to  be  made,  it  is  probable  that  the  coal  may  extend 
under  it;  but  if  the  dip  is  in  the  contrary  direction,  the 
search  ought  not  to  be  undertaken,  since  experience  has 
shown  that  it  would  be  useless. 

Fig.  29. 


2         _*         4 


The  reason  will  be  understood  by  fig.  29,  where  123 
4,  are  a  series  of  eoal  strata,  dipping  towards  b.  The  u»- 
eonformable  strata  c  e,  are  sandstone,  lying  over  the  coal. 
Now,  suppose  the  coal  vein  4,  makes  an  outcrop  at  that 
point,  on  the  estate  of  A,  adjoining  the  estate  of  B,  which 
lies  towards  5,  then  it  is  apparent  that  A  would  find  only  a 

n'  it  of  the  vein  4  on  his  estate,  and  that  it  would  be  use- 
to  search  in  the  direction  of  d  for  coal,  since  the  dip 
of  4  is  sufficient  to  prove  that  none  exists  there,  unless,  in- 
deed, another  coal  field  should  be  found.  Whereas,  on  the 
estate  of  B,  though  there  might  not  exist  an  outcrop,  still 
the  dip  of  that  on  the  estate  of  A  would  make  it  highly 
probable  that  B  would  find  coal  on  his  estate,  though  it 
might  be  too  deep  for  working. 

We  have  observed,  in  another  place,  that  coal  has  sel- 
dom or  never  been  found  in  hot  climates.  According  to 
Mr.  Bakewell,  this  mineral  has  rarely  been  discovered  be- 
yond the  latitudes  of  35°  and  65°.  It,  however,  exists  in 
the  province  of  Canton,  in  about  the  30th  degree  of  lati- 
tude. In  this  country,  the  great  coal  ranges  appear  to  lie 
between  the  latitudes  of  40°  and  45Q. 

Indications  of  Coal.  Although  it  is  not  certain  that  coal 
exists  at  any  given  place  until  it  is  actually  found,  still 
there  are  indications  which  might  perhaps  warrant  the  ex- 
pense of  a  search,  by  boring  in  districts  where  coal  has- 
never  been  discovered.  These  indications  are  various,  and 
to  point  them  out  requires  much  knowledge  and  experience 
on  this  subject. 

In  England,  Mr.  Farey  states,  that  the  coal  districts  in- 
cline to  clay,  and  are  generally  of  an  inferior  quality. 
When  laid  down  to  pastures,  small  daisies  and  insignificant 
weeds  are  more  disposed  to  prevail  than  grass. 


STRATA    WHICH    INDICATE    COAL.  185 

In  these  districts,  water  is  generally  procured  at  incon- 
siderable depths,  and  when  the  faults  are  numerous,  springs 
are  common,  and  range  in  a  line  with  the  fault,  for  the 
reason  already  explained. — See  Fault. 

The  face  of  the  country  where  coal  exists,  is  generally 
undulating,  the  hiils  being  rounded  and  not  mural  or  pre 
cipitous,  and  the  valleys  gently  sloping  and  not  deep  as 
they  are  in  granite  formations.  Sometimes,  however,  coal 
is  found  in  hills  more  than  a  thousand  feet  above  the  gen- 
eral level  of  the  country. 

Strata  which  indicate  Coal.  In  England  and  Wales, 
coal  generally  reposes  on  a  series  of  beds  called  millstone- 
grit  and  shale.  The  millstone-grit  is  merely  a  coarse 
grained  sandstone,  consisting  of  quartzose  particles  of  va- 
rious sizes,  agglutinated  by  an  argillaceous  cement.  This 
differs  from  the  sandstone  that  is  found  above  and  between 
the  coal  strata,  chiefly  in  its  greater  induration. 

The  shale  is  a  dark  colored  slaty  rock,  which  differs 
little  from  the  slate-clay  beds  found  among  coal. 

In  England,  secondary  limestone  is  often  associated 
with  coal.  This  is  called  carboniferous  limestone,  be- 
cause it  is  generally  found  in  coal  or  carboniferous  dis- 
tricts. Red  marl  is  also  a  common  attendant  on  coal  for- 
mations, and  indeed,  is  so  common,  that  few  coal  shafts 
are  sunk  without  piercing  through  it.  This  is  a  kind  of 
sandstone  cemented  with  clay  and  colored  with  iron.  Mr. 
Bakewell  suoposes  that  it  has  been  formed  by  the  decom- 
position or  disintegration  of  trap,  greenstone  and  granu- 
lar quartz.  Coal  is  also  accompanied  with  thin  strata  of 
what  the  English  call  iron-stone.  This  is  a  dark  brown 
or  gray  stone,  of  an  earthy  appearance,  but  of  great  spe- 
cific gravity,  being  about  three  times  the  weight  of  an 
equal  bulk  of  water.  This  stone  is  smelted  for  iron,  and 
yields  about  thirty  per  cent.  Another  attendant  on  coal 
is  that  kind  of  limestone,  in  Enghnd,  called  lias.  This 
name  is  said  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  word,  layers,  pro- 
bably because  the  strata  of  this  rock  are  generally  very 
regular  and  flat.  The  finer  kinds  of  lias  answer  for  litho- 
graphic stones.  This  rock  alternates  with  lias  clay,  the 
whole  formation  sometimes  being  several  hundred  feet  in 
thickness.  This  clay  is  highly  impregnated  with  bitu- 
men, and  contains  much  sulphuret  of  iron,  so  that  when 
16* 


186 


STRATA    WHICH    INDICATE    COAL. 


once  ignited  it  will  continue  to  burn  until  the  sulphur  and 
bitumen  are  consumed.  Several  other  minerals  are  found 
in  coal  beds,  in  greater  or  less  quantities,  in  the  English 
mines,  but  those  enumerated  are  the  most  common. 

The  annexed  diagram,  fig.  30,  showing  the  different 
strata  as  they  occur  in  a  coal  field  near  Mamsbury,  will 
illustrate  the  manner  in  which  most  of  these  minerals  are 
placed  with  respect  to  each  other. 

Pig.  30. 


The  lowest  stratum,  or  that  on  which  the  others  are 
placed,  as  within  a  dish,  and  which  also  rises  the  highest, 
marked  1,  is  Old  red  sandstone.  2,  Carboniferous  lime- 
stone. 3,  Millstone-grit.  4  4,  Coal  seams.  5,  Coarse 
sandstone.  6  6,  Red  marl,  or  new  red  sandstone.  7,  Lias. 
8,  Oolite. 

In  this  country,  although  several  of  the  strata  occurring 
with  European  coal  are  wanting,  still  it  is  found  to  be  as- 
sociated with  minerals  of  the  same  general  characters. 
In  Virginia,  the  strata  which  cover  the  coal  are  sand- 
stone and  clay-slate,  the  latter  often  exhibiting  vegetable 
impressions.  The  coal  mines  of  Ohio,  are  situated  among 
strata  of  limestone,  sandstone  and  clay-slate. 

The  following  section  and  description  is  from  Dr.  Hil- 
dreth's  valuable  communication  on  the  coal  deposites  of 
the  valley  of  the  Ohio,  contained  in  Silliman's  Journal  for 
Nov.  1835. 

Dr.  Hildreth's  paper  not  only  relates  to  the  Geology, 
but  also  to  the  Topography,  and  Geography  of  the  Ohio, 
Valley.  It  is  illustrated  with  a  map,  several  views,  and 
many  wood  cuts  delineating  organic  remains,  and  is  among 
the  most  valuable  and  interesting  communications  on  these 
•ubjects  ever  made  to  the  American  public. 


BITUMINOUS    SHALE. 


187 


Section  of  the  Coal  strata  at  the  Salines  on  Kenawha 
River,  Ohio. 

The  strata  beginning  at  the  deepest  are  as  follow: 


ft.  |f»i 


\.Sandstone.     Sixty  feet  thick. 

2.  Coal.     Six  feet  thick.     It  is  bituminous  and  is  exten- 
sively worked  for  several  hundred  feet  under  the  hills. 

3.  Bituminous  Shale,  and  slaty  shale,  forty  feet  thick. 
This,  both  slate  and  shale,  is  filled  with  extinct  species  of 
plants.      Every  layer  not   more  than  the  fourth,  or  the 
eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  when  separated,  displays  fresh 


188  SILICIOUS    SANDSTONE. 

impressions  of  a  variety  of  species,  delineated  on  the  face 
of  the  slate  with  the  most  exquisite  beauty  and  perfection. 
Four  or  five  species  of  the  Palm  tree,  as  many  of  Calam- 
ites,  and  several  Equisetae,  are  among  the  number. 

4.  A  thin  bed  of  coal,  twenty  inches  in  thickness,  rest- 
ing on  the  shale  and  clay-slate.     This  is  not  worked. 

5.  Argillaceous  sandstone  rock,  the  upper  stratified  in 
thin  beds,  the  lower  in  beds  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  in 
thickness.     This  bed  is  about  200  feet  thick,  and  splits 
easily  into  building  stones,  for  which  it  is  much  employed. 
It  is  a  vast  magazine  of  fossil  plants. 

6.  Bituminous  Coal.     This  bed  is  four  feet  thick,  and  is 
extensively  worked. 

7.  Silicious  Sandstone.     The  grains   are   coarse,  and 
sharp,  and  the  bed  reposes  on  the  coal  without  any  inter- 
vening slate,  or  shale.     150  feet  thick. 

8.  Bituminous  Coal.     The  structure  of  this  bed  is  slaty, 
and  in  burning  it  melts,  and  runs  together,  obstructing  the 
current  of  air  necessary  to  combustion,  a  fact  noticed  as 
being  common   to  all  the  upper  beds  of  coal  deposites. 
This  bed  is  four  feet  thick,  and  the  slate  or  shale  on  which 
it  rests  contains  many  impressions  of  plants,  chiefly  of  the 
arundinaceous  and  culmiferous  tribes. 

9.  Silicious  Slate,  or  lydian  stone ;  color  nearly  black, 
and  in  strata  from  two  to  eight  inches  in  thickness.     The 
bed  is  six  feet  thick,  and  is  so  hard  as  not  to  be  impressed 
with  the  best  tempered  steel   instruments.      The  Abori- 
gines manufactured  this  kind  of  stone  into  arrow  heads  and 
knives.     This  deposite  has  been  traced  more  than  forty 
miles. 

10.  Argillaceous  iron  ore,  in  nodules  from  three  to  six 
inches  in  diameter,  imbedded  in  argillaceous,  yellowish 
marl.     Eight  inches  thick. 

11.  Silicious  sandstone ;  color  yellowish,  grain  coarse, 
with  feeble  cohesion.     At  this  place  this  bed  is  eighty  feet 
thick,  but  in  other  places  it  has  a  thickness  of  150  feet.    It 


ORIGIN    OF    COAL.  189 

contains  a  vast  number  of  fossil  trees.  The  wood  has 
been  replaced  with  silicious  matter  tinged  with  iron. 
Sometimes  whole  trees,  with  their  roots  and  branches, 
have  been  found. 

Very  few  fossil  shells,  or  animal  remains  of  any  kind, 
have  been  found  in  the  Kenawha  Valley. 

It  is  intended  that  our  descriptions  and  remarks,  thus 
far,  should  apply  entirely  to  the  several  kinds  of  coal  call- 
ed bituminous,  and  which  burn  with  more  or  less  blaze. 
These  kinds,  known  under  the  names,  Cannel  coal,  Slaty 
coal,  Coarse  coal,  &c.,  are  found  only  among  secondary 
rocks,  and  it  would  be  a  useless  expenditure  of  time  and 
money,  to  search  for  them  in  any  other  situations.  Dr. 
Macculloch  thinks  that  bituminous  coal  does  not  exist  be- 
low the  old  red  sandstone  formations. 

Anthracite.  This  name,  which  is  derived  from  the 
Greek,  signifies,  merely,  carbon  or  coal.  It  is  called,  in 
England,  stone  coal,  and  in  Scotland,  blind  coal  In  this 
country,  where  there  are  many  extensive  localities,  it  is 
distinguished  by  the  names  of  the  places  whence  it  comes, 
as,  Lehigh  coal,  Lackawana  coal,Peach  Orchard  coal,&c. 

Anthracite  has  been  found  in  small  quantities  only,  in 
any  part  of  Europe,  but  in  this  country  it  appears  to  exist 
in  great  abundance,  and  within  the  last  ten  years,  has 
come  into  such  general  use,  as  an  article  of  fuel,  as  in  a 
good  degree  to  supersede  the  use  of  wood  for  the  warming 
of  dwellings,  in  most  of  the  sea-coast  towns  of  the  North- 
ern States.  These  supplies  come  chiefly  from  Pennsyl- 
vania and  New  York,  though  this  coal  exists  also  in  Mas- 
sachusetts and  Rhode  Island. 

Anthracite  is  found  among  primitive  and  transition 
rocks,  as  mica-slate,  clay-slate,  and  graywacke. 

This  mineral  is  distinguished  from  bituminous  coal  by 
its  greater  lustre  and  weight ;  by  its  hardness  and  con- 
choidal  fracture,  and  by  its  burning  without  smoke,  or 
blaze,  or  bituminous  odor. 


ORIGIN    OF    COAL. 


It  is  now  generally  believed,  by  naturalists, 
has  originated  from  vegetables,  though  there  i 


that  coal 
are  many 


190  ORIGIN    OF    COAL. 

different  opinions  with  respect  to  the  modes  in  which  the 
vast  quantities  of  woody  matter,  required  for  this  purpose, 
came  together,  and  also  with  respect  to  the  chemical  chan- 
ges which  it  underwent  during  its  conversion  into  coal,  as 
well  as  the  nature  of  the  agent  by  which  this  was  effected. 

That  coal  originated  from  wood,  appears  to  be  proved 
by  the  fact  that  at  the  present  day,  parts  of  trees  are  found 
in  a  state  of  partial  conversion  into  that  substance.  This 
is  called  wood  coal,  or  lignite,  and  in  some  countries,  is 
not  an  uncommon  substance. 

Near  Cologne,  in  Italy,  exists  a  great  depository  of  this 
fossil,  which  extends  many  leagues,  and  is  fifty  feet  thick, 
Its  covering  is  a  bed  of  gravel  about  twenty  feet  thick. 
Here  trunks  of  trees,  partially  converted  into  coal,  are 
common,  and  many  of  them  are  deprived  of  their  branches, 
which  would  seem  to  indicate  that  they  had  been  trans- 
ported from  a  distance.  Nuts,  which  are  indigenous 
in  Hindoostan  and  China,  are  found  among  this  lig- 
nite. 

"  In  wood  coal,"  says  Mr.  Bakewell,  "  we  may  almost 
seize  nature  in  the  fact  of  making  coal  before  the  process 
is  complete.  These  formations  are  of  a  far  more  recent 
date  than  that  of  common  coal,  though  their  origin  must 
be  referred  to  a  former  condition  of  the  globe,  when  the 
vegetable  productions  of  tropical  climates  flourished  in 
northern  latitudes.  The  vegetable  origin  of  common 
mineral  coal,  appears  to  be  established  by  its  associations 
with  strata,  abounding  in  vegetable  impressions — by  ita 
close  similarity  to  wood  coal,  and  lastly,  by  the  decisive 
fact,  that  some  mineral  coal,  in  the  Dudley  coal  field,  is 
entirely  composed  of  mineralized  plants." 

But  though  the  vegetable  origin  of  coal  may  be  satis- 
factorily established,  there  is  considerable  difficulty  in 
conceiving  by  what  process,  so  many  beds  and  seams  of 
coal  have  been  regularly  arranged  over  each  other,  in  the 
same  place,  and  separated  by  strata  of  sandstone,  shale, 
and  indurated  clay.  It  will  perhaps  tend  to  simplify  this 
inquiry,  if  we  examine  a  coal  field  of  very  limited  extent, 
such  as  those  which  occur  in  small  coal  basins,  called 
swilleys,  and  which  are  not  more  than  one  mile  in  length 
and  breadth.  It  seems  evident  that  these  basins  have 
once  been  small  lakes  or  marshes,  and  that  the  strata  hav» 
been  deposited  on  the  bottoms  and  sides,  taking  the  con 
cave  form,  which  such  depositions,  under  such  circum 


OniGIN  OF  COAL.  191 

stances,  must  assume ;  and  it  is  deserving  of  notice,  that 
the  stratum  of  coal,  which  in  one  of  these  basins,  is  a 
yard  thick  in  the  lowest  part,  gradually  diminishes  as  it 
approaches  the  edges,  and  then  entirely  vanishes.  This 
fact  proves  that  the  present  basin-shaped  position  of  the 
strata,  was  their  original  one ;  and  that  the  basin,  at  the 
period  when  the  coal  was  deposited,  was  a  detached  lake 
or  marsh,  and  not  a  part  of  the  bed  of  the  sea. — Geology, 
p.  123. 

It  would  seem  from  the  above,  as  well  as  from  other 
facts  stated  by  geologists,  that  coal  strata  were  formed  in 
accumulations  of  water;  but  whether  this  was  salt  or 
fresh,  it  is  difficult  to  determine.  The  shells  found  in 
some  coal  beds,  according  to  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Cony- 
beare,  are  those  of  salt  water ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
vegetable  remains  found  in  the  same  strau.  are  clearly 
those  of  the  land  and  not  of  the  sea.  But  the  difficulty  of 
distinguishing  salt  from  fresh  water  shells,  wheie  the  spe- 
cies are  extinct,  is  well  known.  And  it  is  also  ti  ae,  that 
some  shell-fish  belonging  to  the  ocean  may  gradually  be 
inured  to  brackish  water,  and,  finally,  to  that  which  is  en- 
tirely fresh,  and  this,  too,  without  any  material  change  in 
the  form  or  thickness  of  their  shells.  Hence,  any  decision 
of  this  kind,  founded  on  the  appearance  of  a  few  shells 
merely,  must  always  be  extremely  doubtful. 

It  would  appear,  from  the  account  of  Dr.  Hildreth  of 
Marietta,  Ohio,  that  beds  of  coal  on  the  Muskingum  river, 
in  that  state,  have  either  been  formed  in  the  ocean,  or  that 
since  their  formation  they  have  been  submerged  by  salt 
water.  "  The  lime  rocks  here,"  says  he,  "  abound  in  fossil 
marine  shells  of  the  genera  Productus,  Terebratuloe,  and 
Spirifira,  with  Ammonites  and  chambered  shells,  indica- 
ting that  some  of  the  coal  deposites  have  been  deeply  sub- 
merged under  the  salt  water  since  their  formation ;  or  that 
the  vegetable  materials,  composing  the  coal,  had  once 
floated  in  an  ocean,  and  were  precipitated  by  an  accumula- 
tion of  calcareous,  argillaceous,  and  sedimentary  materials, 
collected  on  and  about  them  while  floating." 

"  Marine  fossils,"  continues  the  author,  "are  found  both 
above  and  below  the  coal,  and  sometimes  deposites  contain- 
ing fresh  water  shells  are  intermixed,  although  they  are 
not  so  common  as  they  are  nearer  the  Ohio  river.  Some 
of  these  fresh  water  fossils  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to 
living  species  now  found  in  our  rivers. 


192  ORIGIN  OF  COAL. 

"  Through  nearly  all  the  coal  region,  we  find  many 
proofs  of  the  predominance  both  of  fresh  and  salt  water. 
West  of  the  coal  deposites  in  Ohio,  the  fossil  shells  are 
altogether  marine,  at  least  so  far  I  have  seen  them,  and 
many  of  them  belong  to  the  supercretaceous,  or  tertiary 
genera,  and  many  are  similar  to  those  found  in  the  same 
formations  in  the  southern  States." — Sillimaris  Jour.  Nov. 
1835,  p.  29. 

The  only  analogy  which  the  present  state  of  things  of- 
fers to  the  manner  in  which  coal  was  formed,  is  the  filling 
up  of  lakes  and  estuaries  with  vegetable  matter.  In  these 
situations  we  sometimes  find  series  of  strata,  composed  of 
peat  and  submerged  wood,  alternating  with  those  of  sand, 
clay,  and  gravel ;  and,  therefore,  presenting  the  model  of  a 
coal  field.  Of  the  quantity  of  vegetable  matter  required 
to  form  a  stratum  of  coal,  we  know  nothing,  but  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  thickness  of  these  strata  bear  but 
a  very  small  proportion  to  those  of  the  plants  of  which 
they  were  formed. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  conceive,  however,  that  the  earth 
might  have  produced  a  quantity  of  vegetation,  even  within 
the  circuit  of  a  few  miles,  sufficient  to  form  a  thick  bed 
of  coal,  though  the  thickness  of  this  might  bear  only  a 
fractional  proportion  to  that  of  the  wood.  Those  who 
have  seen  the  pine  forests  of  our  western  country,  can, 
perhaps,  have  some  conception  of  the  vast  pile  which  a 
single  square  mile  of  these  trees  would  form,  if  thrown  to- 
gether. Now,  if  hundreds  of  square  miles  of  such  timber 
were  accumulated,  we  might  suppose  that  there  would  be 
a  quantity  sufficient  to  form  a  single  bed  of  a  large  coal 
formation. 

The  quantity  of  drift  wood  which  descends  the  Missis- 
sippi, in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  might  be  supposed  to 
furnish  ample  matter  for  such  a  coal  bed.  According  to 
the  estimate  of  Mr.  Bringier,  the  quantity  of  timber  which 
drifted  into  the  Achafalaya,  an  arm  of  the  Mississippi, 
during  an  overflow  in  1812,  amounted  to  8000  cubic  feet 
per  minute.  The  same  writer  states  that  the  raft  thus  col- 
lected at  the  mouth  of  the  Red  River,  is  sixty  miles  long, 
and,  in  some  parts,  fifteen  miles  wide.  On  this,  in  some 
places,  cedars  are  collected  by  themselves,  and  in  others, 
pines. — Silliman's  Journal,  vol.  iii.  p.  18. 

Now,  in  case  the  bed  of  this  stream  should,  at  some 
future  time,  be  changed,  so  as  to  leave  this  immense  raft 


ORIGIN    OF    COAL.  193 

covered  with  the  earth,  generations  to  come,  might  here 
discover  one  of  the  most  extensive  coal  fields  yet  known. 

Captain  Basil  Hall  states,  that  on  a  tongue  of  land, 
nearly  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  which 
has  extended  many  leagues  since  the  building  of  New 
Orleans,  large  rafts  of  drift  wood  are  deposited  every 
year.  These  rafts  are  matted  together  into  a  net  work, 
many  yards  in  thickness,  and  cover  several  hundred 
square  leagues  of  surface. — Travels,  vol.  iii.  p.  338. 

These  rafts  afterwards  become  covered  with  mud  from 
the  river,  and  sink  down  to  the  bottom ;  and  on  this,  the 
next  year  is  deposited  another  layer  of  trees,  thus  forming 
alternate  strata  of  wood  and  soil. 

What  analogy  exists  between  the  facts  here  stated,  and 
the  circumstances  which  took  place  at  the  formation  of 
coal  beds,  it  is  impossible  to  determine.  But  with  respect 
to  the  manner  in  which  vast  quantities  of  woody  matter 
may  be  accumulated  by  the  operation  of  natural  causes, 
there  is  certainly  little  difficulty ;  and  perhaps  it  is  as 
easy  to  believe  that  these  accumulations  took  place  in  lakes, 
or  ponds,  as  at  the  mouths  of  rivers ;  nor  is  it  improbable 
that  coal  might  have  been  formed  in  both  situations. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  all  regular  coal  formations  were 
deposited  before  the  general  deluge,  or  at  that  period  when 
the  temperature  of  the  earth  was  much  higher  than  at 
present ;  and  therefore,  when  all  plants,  not  only  attained 
a  greater  size,  but  grew  much  more  rapidly  than  they  do 
now  in  temperate  climates.  Hence,  if  we  suppose  that 
wintry  torrents,  or  occasional  inundations,  denuded  the 
earth  of  her  vegetation  to  a  great  extent,  and  swept  it 
into  lakes  or  estuaries,  there  would  be  little  difficulty  in 
imagining,  that  under  such  a  climate,  the  earth  would 
soon  be  again  prepared  with  her  vegetation  for  a  similar 
sweep,  and  thus  one  stratum  of  coal  after  another  would 
be  formed.  During  the  intervals  of  these  inundations, 
the  operation  of  ordinary  causes  as  the  flowing  of  rivers 
into  these  lakes,  would  bring  down  from  the  mountains 
the  materials  which  have  formed  the  clay  and  sandstone, 
now  interposed  between  the  beds  of  coal,  in  a  manner 
similar  to  what  is  now  taking  place  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi. 

With  respect  to  the  inundations  which  caused  the  an- 
cient forests  to  descend  from  the  hills  to  the  valleys,  and 
to  accumulate  in  lakes  and  estuaries,  there  is  little  difficul- 
17 


194  ORIGIN    OF    COAL. 

ty,  since  the  same  happens  more  or  less  at  the  present 
day;  and  especially  since  geologists  agree,  that  judging 
from  appearances,  natural  causes  were  infinitely  more 
powerful  in  their  effects  on  the  primeval  earth,  than  they 
have  been  since. 

Perhaps  this  circumstance  may  be  considered  a  sign  of 
that  over-ruling  Beneficence,  which  has  ever  been  display- 
ed towards  man ;  for  then,  if  he  existed  at  all,  it  must  have 
been  only  on  a  small  portion  of  the  globe. 

That  natural  causes  anciently  operated  with  much 
greater  power  than  at  present,  is  shown  by  the  changes 
which  earthquakes  produced  on  the  globe,  before  the  his- 
torical era.  The  dislocations  of  strata,  and  the  elevation 
of  mountains  which  were  effected  by  this  cause  in  ancient 
times,  have  analogies  only  in  miniature,  at  the  present 
day.  Nor  is  it  unreasonable  to  suppose,  that  corres- 
ponding effects  were  produced  by  water,  during  similar 
epochs. 

It  is,  therefore,  to  such  ancient  torrents  that  we  must 
attribute  these  effects,  and  which,  with  awful  devastation, 
undermined  the  sides  of  hills,  and  floated  the  vegetation 
into  lakes  and  ponds  ;  or  deposited  it  at  the  mouths  of  riv- 
ers, there  to  undergo,  in  the  lapse  of  time,  those  chemical 
changes,  by  which  wood  is  converted  into  coal  ;  and  thus 
to  supply  present  and  future  ages  with  one  of  the  absolute 
necessities  of  life. 

That  both  earthquakes  which  elevated  and  dislocated 
strata,  and  inundations  of  great  power,  continued  in  oper- 
ation after  coal  was  formed,  is  evident  by  their  effects, 
which  still  exist.  For,  in  many  instances  the  strata  of 
coal  fields  are  not  only  broken  into  faults,  in  the  manner 
already  described,  but  they  also,  near  the  surface,  show 
the  violent  effects  of  water,  a  part  of  some  beds  being  en- 
tirely removed. 

These  circumstances  are  ascertained  by  the  exact  cor- 
respondence of  the  strata,  on  both  sides  of  valleys ;  show- 
ing that  they  were  once  continuous,  and  that  the  hills 
have  been  formed  by  the  removal  of  the  strata  between 
them. 

Sometimes  strata  are  so  separated,  that  the  direction  m 
which  they  ranged,  when  entire,  are  completely  changed; 
the  appearance  being  such  as  would  be  produced  by  a 
violent  upheaving,  and  consequent  fracture  of  the  whole 
formation. 


AMERICAN    COAL    FIELDS.  195 

Fig.  32.  WO  Fig.  32,  represents  an  instance 
which  occurs  at  the  Ashton  coal 
mine,  in  England,  and  where,  after 
j  the  dislocation  in  consequence  of  a 
f  subterranean  force,  a  large  portion 
of  the  strata  was  removed  by  a  tor- 
rent of  water.  The  strata  on  each  side  of  the  valley,  ex- 
actly correspond  in  kind  and  thickness,  though  widely 
separated,  a  a,  coal  veins  ;  b  b,  millstone  grit ;  c  c,  lime- 
stone. 

Thus  is  it  proved,  that  these  changes  took  place  after 
the  formation  of  coal  fields. 

American  Coal  Fields.  With  respect  to  the  coal  fields 
in  our  own  country,  and  especially  of  those  beyond  the 
Alleghany  mountains,  the  following  information  is  taken 
from  a  report  made  by  J.  L.  Packer,  Esq.  before  the  Sen- 
ate of  Pennsylvania,  in  1834. 

The  great  secondary  deposite,  extending  as  is  generally 
believed,  from  the  Hudson  to  the  Mississippi,  and  to  the 
Rocky  mountains,  is  in  Pennsylvania,  limited  by  the  Al- 
leghany mountains,  which  appear  to  form  the  barrier,  or 
dividing  line  between  the  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal 
beds,  or  between  the  transition  and  secondary  formations. 

The  bituminous  coal  field  is  therefore  confined  to  the 
west  side  of  the  Alleghany,  and  is  supposed  to  extend  to 
the  centre  of  the  mountain.  These  coal  beds  vary  from 
orre  foot  to  twelve  feet  in  thickness,  but  rarely  exceed  six 
feet.  They  lie  in  nearly  horizontal  strata,  there  being 
merely  sufficient  dip  to  free  the  mines  from  water.  Some 
mines  contain  three  or  four  beds  with  alternate  layers  of 
earth  and  slate  between  them.  Faults  are  seldom  met 
with,  and  in  this  they  differ  from  the  anthracite,  and  go 
far  to  confirm  the  opinion,  that  all  this  vast  extent  of 
secondary  rocks,  was  once  the  bottom  of  a  vast  lake  or 
sea,  the  surface  of  which  suffered  little  change  from  the 
discharge  of  its  waters,  which  therefore  must  have  run  off 
gradually.  This  great  secondary  region  has  been  drain- 
ed by  the  Mississippi,  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  Susquehannah 
and  the  Hudson. 

It  is  a  curious  and  interesting  geographical  fact,  that 
near  the  northern  termination  of  this  coal  field,  viz.  in 
Potter  county,  Pennsylvania,  and  within  an  area  of  about 
five  miles,  take  their  rise  the  head  waters  of  the  Alle- 


196  AMERICAN    COAL    FIELDS. 

ghany,  the  Susquehannah,  the  Qenesee,  the  Chesapeake 
and  the  St.  Lawrence  rivers.  With  the  exception  of  the 
Susquehannah  and  its  tributaries,  discharging  into  the 
Potomac,  all  the  streams  arising  in  the  coal  field  west  of 
the  Alleghanies  flow  into  lakes,  or  into  the  Ohio  river, 
consequently  the  elevation  of  the  ground  is  gradually  de- 
pressed in  that  direction,  and,  as  is  supposed,  it  becomes 
too  low  to  contain  coal. 

The  northern  boundary  of  the  coal  region  appears  to 
be  from  the  head  waters  of  Towanda  creek,  in  Bradford 
county,  across  the  counties  of  Potter,  McKean,  Warren, 
and  Venango,  to  the  Ohio  line. 

A  report  on  this  region  has  lately  been  made  by  R.  C. 
Taylor,  Esq ,  a  practical  engineer  and  geologist,  for  the 
Blossburgh  rail-road  company,  in  which  it  is  shown  that 
the  coal  runs  out,  as  the  streams  decline  towards  the  north. 
The  dip  of  the  coal  strata  towards  the  west,  is  such  as  to 
require  towards  the  east  an  elevation  of  upwards  of  five 
thousand  feet,  in  order  to  include  the  coal  measures  at  the 
state  line  between  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  whereas 
the  hills  there  are  probably  less  than  six  hundred  feet  in 
altitude. 

This  calculation,  says  Mr.  Taylor,  is  made  for  the  pur- 
pose of  showing  the  futility  of  the  expectation  of  tracing 
these  coal  fields  in  a  northerly  direction,  beyond  the  limits 
at  which  they  are  discoverable. 

This  coal  field  being  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Al- 
leghany  mountain,  extends  into  Virginia,  and  underlies 
more  or  less  all  the  western  counties  of  Pennsylvania, 
with  the  exception  of  Erie,  in  which  it  has  not  been  dis- 
covered. The  counties  of  Bradford,  Lycoming,  Tioga, 
Potter,  McKean,  Warren,  Crawford,  Bedford,  and  Centre, 
lie  partly  in,  and  partly  out  of  the  coal  field.  The  coun- 
ties of  Allegheny,  Armstrong,  Beaver,  Butler,  Cambria, 
Clearfield,  Fayette,  Green,  Indiana,  Jefferson,  Mercer, 
Somerset,  Venango,  Washington,  and  Westmoreland,  are 
wholly  within  its  range,  and  embrace  together  an  area  of 
twenty-one  thousand  square  miles,  or  thirteen  million, 
four  hundred  and  forty  thousand  acres. 

Coal  is  mined  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  in  all  the 
above  counties,  at  the  expense  of  one  or  two  cents  the 
bushel,  and  is  thus  brought  to  every  man's  door. 

That  the  abundance  and  cheapness  of  coal  has  given 
birth  to  the  vast,  and  widely  extended  manufacturing  es- 


PEAT.  197 

tablishments  of  the  west,  there  can  be  no  doubt.  Pitts- 
burgh and  its  environs  contain  ninety  steam  engines  for  the 
various  manufactures  of  iron,  steel,  glass,  cotton,  salt,  brass, 
white  lead,  flour,  oil,  leather,  &c.  These  engines  con- 
sume annually  2,065,306  bushels  of  coal.  The  city  of 
Pittsburgh  and  its  suburbs,  Alleghany  town.  Birmingham, 
«fec.,  contain  a  population  of  30,000  souls.  The  coal  con- 
sumed for  every  purpose  in  and  about  Pittsburgh,  is  esti- 
mated at  7,665,000  bushels,  or  255,500  tons ;  which,  at 
four  cents  a  bushel,  the  price  now  paid  there,  amounts  to 
the  sum  of  306,512  dollars. 

Besides  the  coal  used  in  the  various  manufactures  of 
Pittsburgh,  vast  quantities  are  consumed  in  the  western 
counties  of  the  State,  in  the  manufacture  of  common  salt. 
In  these  counties,  there  are  already  about  ninety  establish- 
ments for  this  purpose,  and  which  produce  yearly  about 
1,000,000  bushels  of  salt,  and  consume  5,000,000  bushels 
of  coal. 

It  is  found  that  the  bituminous  coal  of  Pennsylvania 
produces  coke  equal  to  that  of  Great  Britain,  and  is  em- 
ployed to  a  considerable  extent  by  the  manufacturers  of 
iron. 

See  Silliman's  Journal,  No.  59.  This  number  is  oc- 
cupied by  an  account  of  the  geology  and  mineral  resour- 
ces of  the  valley  of  the  Ohio,  which  ought  to  be  read  by 
every  American. 


Although  peat  is  a  substance  entirely  distinct  from  coal, 
yet  there  exists  considerable  analogy  between  them.  They 
are  both  of  vegetable  origin  j  both  are  formed  by  natural 
processes;  their  colors  are  similar;  and  when  perfectly 
formed,  they  neither  of  them  present  the  least  traces  of 
their  origin;  and,  lastly,  they  are  both  dug  out  of  the  earth 
and  employed  for  fuel. 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  peat  moors  will  ulti- 
mately become  coal  beds.  In  all  instances,  peat  appears 
to  have  been  formed  since  the  present  order  of  things  on 
the  earth,  or  since  the  deluge ;  while  it  seems  to  be  equally 
true,  that  coal  was  formed  before  that  epoch. 

Dr.  Macculloch  has  shown  that  there  is  a  connected 
17* 


198  PBAT. 

gradation  from  forest  peat,  that  is,  submerged  wood,  through 
lignite,  to  perfect  coal.  "  Lignite,"  says  he,  "  presents  no 
difficulties,  being  derived  from  submerged  wood,  or  forest 
peat.  I  have  shown  that  the  deposites  of  this  substance 
[lignite]  are  of  a  far  higher  antiquity  than  any  peat,  and 
thus  the  degrees  of  bituminization  may  be  accounted  for, 
though  there  may  be  many  other  causes  also  still  unknown 
to  us." 

"  If  the  contrast  between  peat  and  coal  is  far  greater, 
[than  between  peat  and  lignite,]  the  resemblances  are  too 
striking  to  leave  a  doubt  of  the  origin  of  the  latter,  from 
beds  of  that  substance.  I  have  shown  that  all  the  geologi- 
cal circumstances  are  similar,  or  identical  in  both  ;  the  al- 
luvial bed  of  one  corresponding  to  the  rocky  strata  of  the 
other,  as  do  the  deposites  of  organic  substances ;  while  the 
insulated  condition  of  each  class  is  also  a  striking  point 
of  resemblance.  The  mechanical  structures  of  peat  and 
coal  often  present  sufficient  analogies ;  the  resemblance  of 
forest  peat  to  the  latter,  being  often  absolute  in  all  but  the 
mineral  character;  as  in  both  do  similar  organic  remains 
occur,  and  in  a  similar  manner,  while  in  both,  also,  they 
are  sometimes  wanting." — Geology,  vol.  ii.  p.  357. 

The  same  writer  has  shown  that  wood  may  be  convert- 
ed into  a  substance  having  all  the  chemical  properties  of 
peat;  then  of  lignite;  and,  lastly,  of  coal.  The  process 
consists  in  subjecting  the  wood  to  heat  and  moisture  in  a 
close  vessel,  so  that  none  of  the  gases  may  escape.  He 
does  not,  however,  suppose  that  coal  has  been  subjected  to 
a  high  temperature  during  the  progress  of  its  formation, 
but,  if  we  understand  him,  (for  of  all  late  writers  he  is  the 
most  obscure,)  he  believes  that  the  pressure  of  the  incum- 
bent strata,  together  with  fermentation,  and  above  all,  time, 
has  converted  wood  into  coal. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  peat  had  the  property  of  pre- 
serving animal  matter  from,  decay,  and  the  following  ac- 
count, written  by  Dr.  Balguy,  and  published  in  the  Lon. 
Phil.  Trans,  for  1734,  seems  to  verify  such  an  opinion. 

"  On  the  14th  of  Jan.  1675,  as  ;i  farmer  and  his  maid  ser- 
vant were  crossing  the  peat  moors,  near  Castleton,  in  Der- 
byshire, they  were  overtaken  by  a  great  fall  of  snow,  and 
both  perished;  their  bodies  were  not  found  until  the  3d  of 
May,  in  the  same  year,  and  were  then  in  such  a  state,  that 
the  coroner  ordered  them  to  be  buried  on  the  spot  in  the 
peat.  Here  they  lay  twenty-eight  years  and  nine  months 


PEAT.  199 

when  the  curiosity  of  some  countrymen,  (probably  having 
heard  that  peat  would  preserve  dead  bodies,)  induced 
them  to  open  these  graves.  The  bodies  appeared  quite 
fresh,  the  skin  was  fair,  though  somewhat  darker  than 
natural,  and  the  flesh  as  soft  as  that  of  persons  newly  dead. 
These  bodies  were  afterwards  frequently  exposed  as  cu- 
riosities, until  the  year  1716,  forty-one  years  after  their 
deaths,  when  they  were  buried  by  order  of  the  farmer's 
descendants.  At  that  time,  Dr.  Bourne,  of  Chesterfield, 
who  examined  these  bodies,  says  that  the  man  was  per- 
fect ;  his  beard  was  strong,  his  hair  short,  and  his  skin 
hard,  and  of  a  tanned  leather  color,  like  the  liquor  in 
which  he  had  lain.  The  body  of  the  woman  was  injured, 
having  been  more  frequently  exposed,  but  the  hair  was 
like  that  of  a  living  person. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  the  perfect  body 
of  a  man  dressed  in  the  ancient  Saxon  costume,  was  dis- 
covered in  a  peat  bed  at  Hatfield  chase,  in  Yorkshire,  but 
it  soon  perished  on  exposure  to  the  air. — BakewelFs  Geol. 

In  1747,  the  body  of  a  woman  was  found  six  feet  deep, 
in  a  peat  moor  in  Lincolnshire.  The  antique  sandals  on 
her  feet  afforded  evidence  of  her  having  been  buried  there 
for  many  ages,  and  yet  her  hair,  nails,  and  skin,  are  de- 
scribed as  having  shown  hardly  any  nrtxrks  of  decay. 

On  the  estate  of  the  earl  of  Moira,  in  Ireland,  a  human 
body  was  found  a  foot  deep  in  gravel,  covered  with 
eleven  feet  of  moss.  The  body  was  completely  clothed  in 
garments  of  hair.  The  great  length  of  time  it  had  been 
interred,  may  be  inferred  from  this  circumstance,  for  it  is 
known,  that  before  the  use  of  wool,  the  inhabitants  of 
Britain  made  their  clothing  of  hair,  and  yet  this  body  was 
fresh  and  unimpaired. 

At  the  battle  of  Solway,  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII, 
(1542,)  when  the  Scotch  army  was  routed,  an  unfortunate 
troop  of  horse  were  driven  into  the  Solway  morass,  and 
sinking  down,  the  surface  closed  upon  them.  A  tradition 
of  this  catastrophe  had  always  been  kept  alive  by  the  peo- 
ple of  the  neighborhood,  and  the  place  where  it  was  sup- 
posed to  have  happened,  designated.  This  tradition  has 
now  been  authenticated,  for  a  man  and  horse,  in  complete 
armor,  such  as  was  worn  in  Henry's  time,  has  been  found 
by  the  peat  diggers,  in  the  place  where  it  was  believed  the 
accident  occurred.  The  skeleton  of  both  man  and  horse 
was  well  preserved,  and  the  different  parts  of  the  armor 
readily  distinguished. 


200      ORIGIN    AND    PHENOMENA    OF    TRAP    ROCKS. 

These  cases  are  from  various  authorities,  but  are  well 
authenticated. 

Cause  of  the  antisceptic  property  of  Peat.  This  pro- 
perty has  been  attributed  to  the  carbonic  and  gallic  acids 
which  are  set  free  by  the  decaying  of  wood,  and  also  to 
the  gums  and  resins  which  various  plants  contain.  Others 
have  attributed  this  effect  to  the  tannin  which  the  peat 
contains.  It  is  most  probable,  however,  that  this  property 
is  owing  to  the  formation  of  pyroligenous  acid,  during  the 
decomposition  of  the  vegetables.  It  is  true  that  no  known 
process,  except  that  of  the  destructive  distillation  of  the 
wood,- can  form  this  acid  by  art,  still  it  maybe  conjectured, 
that  the  natural  destruction  of  the  same  organic  substances 
may  produce  the  same  effect. 


ORIGIN  AND  PHENOMENA  OF  TRAP  ROCKS. 

It  has  already  been  stated,  that  the  term  trap,  includes 
a  family  of  rocks  of  igneous  origin,  and  that  these  are  ba- 
salt, porphyry,  green-stone,  and  their  associates. 

Under  what  conditions  the  trap  rocks  were  formed,  it  is 
impossible  to  determine,  there  being  no  examples  of  such 
formations  at  the  present  day.  We  know  that  fused  mat- 
ter, as  it  is  thrown  out  of  volcanoes,  differs  in  most  re- 
spects from  any  of  the  varieties  of  trap  ;  nor  do  the  ancient 
lavas  vary  materially  from  those  of  the  present  day,  a 
proof  that  age  does  not  convert  lava  into  trap.  The  form 
under  which  trap  rocks  exist,  also  seems  to  show,  that 
they  could  not  have  been  produced  under  similar  circum- 
stances with  the  volcanic  products  of  the  present  day. 

Some  geologists  have  supposed  that  trap  was  thrown 
up  under  the  sea,  and  that  the  pressure  of  the  water  has 
been  instrumental  in  causing  the  difference  between  it 
and  lava.  But  were  this  the  case,  it  might  be  expected 
that  marine  remains,  as  shells,  would  be  common  among 
the  fissures  of  these  rocks.  If  it  is  supposed  that  these 
have  been  converted  into  quicklime  and  washed  away, 
still  such  remains  ought  to  exist  on  the  strata  over  which 
these  rocks  are  found. 

It  is  true  that  such  cases  do  exist,  but  they  are  far  from 
being  universal,  or  even  common. 


ORIGIN  AND  PHENOMENA  OF  TRAP  ROCKS.   201 

If  these  rocks  were  thrown  up  into  the  open  air  in  the 
form  of  lava,  and  after  the  elevation  of  the  land  from  the 
sea,  then  we  might  inquire  how  the  difference  between 
products  having  the  same  origin  is  to  be  accounted  for,  and 
why  trap  has  taken  the  form  of  precipitous  mountains, 
instead  of  being  spread  in  comparatively  thin  sheets  on  the 
surface,  as  lava  is  at  the  present  day.  It  appears  there- 
fore, that  these  rocks  were  formed  under  circumstances 
which  it  is  difficult,  or  impossible  satisfactorily  to  explain, 
and  on  which  this  is  not  the  place  to  speculate. 

These  rocks  appear  to  be  of  all  ages,  between  that  of 
granite,  and  those  of  secondary  stratified  formations,  con- 
taining organic  remains.  This  is  proved  from  the  cir- 
cumstance that  trap  is  found  above  all  the  others,  and 
when  it  occurs  below  them,  the  phenomena  prove  that  the 
trappean  matter  has  been  forced  between  their  strata  from 
beneath.— (See  Fig.  33.) 

The  igneous  origin  of  trap,  especially  of  basalt  and 
greenstone,  is  most  directly  proved  by  the  fact,  often  ob- 
served, that  where  they  come  into  contact  with  the  orig- 
inal strata  in  their  passage  from  beneath,  the  effects  of  heat 
are  always  apparent  on  these  strata. 

When  a  dyke  of  basalt  intersects  a  stratum  of  coal,  the 
coal,  to  the  distance  of  several  feet,  or,  sometimes  even 
yards,  is  deprived  of  its  bitumen,  or  converted  into  coke. 
Dr.  Macculloch  observed  that  the  proximity  of  trap  to  shale, 
(a  kind  of  slate,)  has  the  effect  to  convert  it  into  a  sub- 
stance resembling  basalt.  But  it  is  unnecessary  to  cite 
further  examples,  since  it  may  be  stated  in  general  terms, 
that  the  effect  of  a  basaltic  dyke  on  the  contiguous  strata, 
is  precisely  that  which  would  have  been  produced,  had  the 
matter  of  the  dyke  been  at  a  red,  or  even  at  a  white  heat, 
at  the  time  of  its  protrusion. 

But  there  are  other  circumstances  which  show  that  ba- 
saltic dykes  were  formed  in  a  fluid  state,  for  when  these 
penetrate  stratified  formations,  the  matter  of  which  they 
are  composed,  sometimes  insinuates  itself  between  the  stra- 
ta from  beneath,  in  a  manner  which  would  be  impossible, 
had  it  not  been  in  that  state.  Dr.  Macculloch,  in  his  ac- 
count of  the  Western  Isles,  gives  a  figure,  in  illustration 
of  such  an  instance,  which  is  subjoined. 


202      ORIGIN    AND    PHENOMENA    OF    TRAP    ROCKS. 
Pig.  33. 


The  vertical  lines  a,  fig.  33,  represent  the  basalt  partly 
incumbent  in  the  unconformable  position,  on  the  horizon- 
tal strata  c  c.  At  b  b,  the  basalt  has  forced  up  the  sand- 
stone, and  passed  between  its  strata,  two  of  which  it  has 
entirely  separated  from  their  fellows,  forming  between 
them  sheets  of  its  own  matter. 

Dykes  of  basalt  form  angles  with  the  horizon  of  every 
quantity.  Sometimes  they  are  nearly  or  quite  perpendi- 
cular to  the  horizontal  strata  through  which  they  pass.  In 
some  instances  a  large  vein  is  pierced  by  a  smaller  one, 
which  passing  through  its  middle,  divides  it  into  two 
parts.  The  adjoining  cut  from  Dr.  Ure,  represents  such 
an  instance. 

Fig.  34. 


Fig.  34,  a  a,  represents  the  great  basaltic  dyke,  passing 
through  calcareous  sandstone,  and  b,  a  small  vein  of  the 
same  matter,  by  which  it  is  pierced  through  the  line  of  its 
axis.  The  latter  is  singularly  undulated,  somewhat  like 


ORIGIN  AND  PHENOMENA  OF  TRAP  ROCKS.         203 

the  zig-zag  line  of  an  electric  shock  passing  through  the 
atmosphere. 

Although,  in  most  instances,  the  trap  veins  pass  from 
below,  towards  the  surface,  still  there  are  instances  where 
they  descend  from  the  surface  into  fissures  beneath.  This 
is  among  the  more  rare  and  remarkable  phenomena  which 
this  interesting  rock  exhibits. 

This  example  occurs  in  the  island  of  Sky,  and  is  de- 
scribed by  Dr.  Macculloch.  The  basaltic  veins  traverse 
strata  of  sandstone,  in  a  vertical  direction,  and  parallel  to 
each  other.  Fig.  35. 

Fig.  35. 


They  appear  to  descend  from  the  mass  on  the  surface, 
and  are  so  numerous,  in  some  places,  as  nearly  to  equal, 
taken  collectively,  the  mass  of  rock  through  which  they 
pass.  Sometimes  six  or  eight  veins  occur  within  the  space 
of  150  feet,  and  their  aggregate  magnitude  is  apparently 
sixty  or  seventy  feet.  Their  average  breadth  is  about  ten 
feet,  though  they  vary  from  five  to  twenty  feet. 

It  is  certainly  very  difficult  to  account  for  the  manner 
in  which  nature  performed  this  work.  Were  these  veins 
only  an  inch  or  two  thick,  we  might  suppose  that  the 
melted  trap  ascended  by  the  large  middle  vein,  seen  in 
the  drawing,  and  having  fissured  the  sandstone  by  its 
great  heat,  descended  again  by  the  apertures  thus  pro- 
duced ;  but  the  fissures  are  much  too  large  for  such  a  sup- 
position. 

It  is  supposed  that  every  basaltic  dyke  terminates  in  a 
mass  of  basalt  below  the  surface,  and,  therefore,  that  ba- 


204  COLUMNAR  BASALT. 

saltic  rocks,  resting  on  the  surface,  are  connected  by  the 
dyke  or  fissure  through  which  they  were  thrown  up,  with 
that  part  of  the  mass  Avhich  still  remains  beneath  the  earth. 
So  that  these  dykes  are  necks  passing  through  the  crust 
of  the  earth  and  connecting  the  two  masses.  Where  dykes 
do  not  reach  the  surface,  of  course  they  are  only  connected 
with  the  lower  masses. 

Columnar  Basalt,  All  the  members  of  the  trap  family 
occasionally  assume  the  form  of  columns,  more  or  less 
perfect,  but,  in  this  respect,  basalt  excels  the  others. 

These  columns  are  formed  by  a  natural  division  of  the 
whole  mass  of  basalt  in  a  vertical  direction.  They  vary 
in  the  number  of  their  angles,  from  three  to  eleven  or 
twelve,  the  medium  polygons  having  from  five  to  seven 
faces.  These  are  often  perfectly  regular,  the  angles  being 
sharp  and  well  defined,  and  the  faces  plain  and  smooth,  as 
represented  by  the  annexed  cut,  fig.  36. 

Fig.  36.  In  most  cases,  when  standing  in  their 

original  positions,  their  sides  are  in  con- 
tact, or.  so  little  separated  as  barely  to 
admit  the  infiltration  of  carbonate  of 
lime ;  a  striking  difference,  as  observed 
by  Dr.  Macculloch,  between  them  and 
the  irregular  prisms,  which  result  from 
the  cracking  of  dried  clay,  and  showing  that  the  nature 
of  the  process  by  which  these  divisions  are  made, 
(whether  crystalline  or  not,)  are  entirely  different  from 
each  other. 

The  columns  are  sometimes  continuous,  at  others  joint- 
ed, either  obliquely  or  at  right  angles ;  occasionally,  also, 
they  are  fissured  without  the  appearance  of  regular 
joints. 

The  appearance  of  a  six-sided  basaltic  column,  regu- 
larly jointed,  that  is,  consisting  of  short  prisms  laid  on 
each  other,  is  represented  by  fig.  37.  It  is  not  common, 
however,  that  the  prisms  are  as  regular,  with  respect  to 
length,  as  here  represented,  the  joints  being  more  com- 
monly repeated  at  intervals,  varying  from  a  few  inches  to 
several  feet. 


COLUMNAR    DA8ALT. 


205 


Pig.  38. 


Fig.  37.  In  their  lengths,  these  columns  also  dif- 

fer exceedingly.  In  the  island  of  Sky  are 
some  which  are  400  feet  long,  while  others 
are  only  an  inch  in  length.  In  diameter 
some  are  several  feet,  while  others  are  less 
than  an  inch. 

In  exposed  situations  the  prismatic  blocks 
represented  by  fig.  37,  lose  their  angles  by 
the  action  of  the  weather,  and  become  glob- 
ular, but  still  retain  their  columnar  position 
as  shown  by  fig.  38. 

It  must  not  be  understood  that  basaltic 
columns  preserve  their  vertical  positions, 
as  usually  represented  by  the  drawings  of 
StafTa  and  the  Giant's  Causeway,  these 
beinpf  rare  instances,  both  with  respect  to 
position  and  height.  These  columns  are 
placed  in  every  manner,  from  the  horizon- 
tal to  the  vertical  angle,  though  attracting 
most  attention  in  these  latter  cases,  from 
their  resemblance  to  the  efforts  of  architec- 
ture. 

Trap  rocks  often  form  mountains  of  con- 
siderable height  and  sometimes  spread  over 
large  districts  of  country.  The  island  of 
Sky,  on  the  western  coast  of  Ireland,  is  one 
continuous  mass  of  erupted  rock,  fifty  miles 
long  and  twenty  broad.  With  respect  to 
the  elevation  of  trap  mountains,  the  follow- 
ing are  examples.  Tinto,  in  the  district  of 
Clyde,  is  2036  feet  high.  Benmore,  in  the 
island  of  Mull,  3097.  Salisbury  Craig,  550,  and  Arthur's 
Seat,  800  feet ;  the  two  last  near  Edinburgh, 

On  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  Mount  Holyoke  in  Massa- 
chusetts is  830  feet  above  the  Connecticut,  and  900  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Mount  Tom,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  river  is  still  more  elevated,  being  nearly  1000 
feet  high. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut,  the  mural  side  of  the 
greenstone  formations,  is  generally,  and  perhaps  always 
towards  the  west,  in  which  direction  the  precipices  are 
often  nearly  perpendicular ;  while  towards  the  east,  the 
ascent  is  commonly  quite  gradual.  Whether  this  fact  has 
18 


206  PROTRUSION    OF    GREENSTONE. 

been  observed  of  the  greenstone  of  other  countries,  we  do 
not  know. 

Who  can  conceive  of  the  mighty  power  which  forced 
these  enormous  masses  from  the  bowels  of  the  earth ;  or 
the  awful  scenery  which  was  exhibited,  when  they  were 
poured  forth  in  the  form  of  red  hot  lava?  for  there  is  no 
doubt  but  this  was  the  manner  of  their  production. 

Fig.  39. 


In  most  instances,  basaltic  and  greenstone  mountains 
present  the  form  of  rounded  outlines,  with  occasional  pre- 
cipices on  one  or  more  of  their  sides. 

The  configuration  of  the  basaltic  columns  of  StafFa,  rep- 
resented by  fig.  39,  is  peculiarly  striking  on  this  account. 
A  part  of  the  mountain  has  fallen  down,  in  the  form  of 
pillars  of  various  dimensions,  leaving  the  others  standing 
in  fair  view,  and  preserving  a  high  mural  face  of  great 
elevation,  composed  entirely  of  columnar  pieces,  touching 
each  other. 

The  rounded  form  of  the  massive  cap,  which  surmounts 
these  pillars,  presents  the  outline  common  to  basaltic  hills. 

Protrusion  of  Greenstone.  Although  greenstone  strict- 
ly belongs  to  the  trap  family,  and  passes  by  insensible  de- 
grees into  basalt,  still  there  have  been  detected  but  few  in- 
stances, where  it  has  protruded  through  superincumbent 
rocks  so  as  to  exhibit  the  fact  to  the  eye  of  the  geologist. 
The  diagram  fig.  40,  from  Prof.  Hitchcock's  Geology  of 
Massachusetts,  shows  such  a  case. 


MINERAL    VEINS.  207     * 

Fig.  40. 


"  The  protrusion,"  says  Prof.  H.,  "  of  the  unstratified 
rocks  through  the  stratified  ones,  by  internal  igneous 
agency,  now  admitted  by  most  geologists,  has  led  obser- 
vers to  examine  carefully  for  evidences  of  mechanical  dis- 
turbance, near  the  line  of  contact.  They  have,  1  believe, 
found  less  proof  of  such  disturbance  by  the  intrusion  of 
greenstone,  than  in  the  case  of  the  older  rocks,  as  sienite 
and  granite.  Every  such  case,  therefore,  deserves  to  be 
noticed.  If  I  mistake  not,  the  following  sketch  of  a  vein 
of  greenstone  in  argillaceous  slate,  is  an  example  of  this 
sort.  The  dyke  is  about  ten  feet  thick,  and  the  general 
dip  of  the  layers  of  slate  in  the  quarry,  is  about  30°  south- 
east. But  as  shown  in  the  figure,  near  the  greenstone  it 
is  considerably  curved  upwards  in  the  contrary  direction. 
The  quarry,  where  the  example  occurs,  is  about  half  a 
mile  north  of  the  powder  house  in  Charlestown." 


MINERAL    VEINS. 

Metallic  veins  appear  originally  to  have  been  fissures, 
often  passing  through  different  beds  of  rock,  and  which 
were  subsequently  filled  with  metallic  ores.  These  veins 
must  therefore  be  considered  as  subsequent  formations  to 
the  rocks  through  which  they  pass.  When,  however,  a 
vein  is  found  in  only  one  bed  of  rock,  the  vein  may  have 
been  formed  and  filled  at  the  time  when  the  rock  was  con- 
solidated. 

When  mineral  veins  occur  in  considerable  numbers  in 
any  tract  of  country,  they  maintain  a  general  parallelism, 
as  if  all  the  fissures  to  which  they  owe  their  origin,  had 
been  formed  at  the  same  time,  by  some  common  cause. 

The  absolute  antiquity  of  veins  cannot  be  conjectured, 


208  MINERAL    VEINS. 

but  where  one  vein  intersects  another,  as  is  often  the  case, 
the  dislocation  of  the  strata,  through  which  the  oldest 
vein  passes,  by  the  contact  of  the  new  one,  is  sufficient  to 
show  a  difference  in  their  ages. 

Veins  exist  in  primitive,  transition,  and  secondary  rocks, 
but  are  most  common  in  the  former.  The  substances 
most  commonly  found  in  them,  are  the  metals,  quartz,  cal- 
careous spar,  barytes,  and  Derbyshire  spar.  It  hardly 
need  be  remarked,  that  the  chief  object  in  pursuing  veins, 
is  the  metals  which  they  contain. 

With  respect  to  the  depth  of  metallic  veins,  nothing  but 
conjecture  can  be  offered.  The  miners  believe  that  they 
reach  quite  through  the  earth,  but  this  opinion  has  no 
other  foundation  than  that  they  never  find  their  termina- 
tion. Indeed,  it  is  believed,  that  no  instance  has  been  re- 
corded, where  the  end  of  a  metallic  vein  has  been  found. 
They,  however,  often  grow  too  poor  to  pay  the  expense 
of  working ;  and  the  difficulty  of  clearing  deep  mines  of 
the  water,  is  a  frequent  reason  why  they  are  relinquished 
when  they  would  pay  a  good  profit,  were  they  near  the 
surface.  Veins  are  seldom  rich  near  the  surface;  but 
increase  in  value  at  a  medium  depth,  and  grow  poor  again 
at  a  greater. 

Metallic  veins  often  change  their  metals  at  different 
depths.  In  France,  there  are  veins  which  contain  iron 
above,  then  silver,  and  below  the  silver,  copper ;  and  one 
of  the  Cornwall  mines  contains  zinc,  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  veins,  which  becomes  rich  in  copper  at  a  greater  depth. 
Veins  often  change  their  dimensions  also,  being  narrow 
in  some  parts,  and  wide  in  others.  Thus  the  Dalcoath 
mine  of  Cornwall,  varies  from  forty  feet,  to  six  inches  in 
width. 

It  is  a  curious  circumstance,  that  where  a  vein  is  inter- 
sected by  a  dyke,  that  the  former  often  divides  into  two 
branches,  which  unite  again  before  reaching  the  latter, 
and  after  having  passed  it,  separates  into  several  ramifi- 
cations. 

Thus,  fig.  41,  b  b,  is  the  dyke,  and  a  a,  the  metallic 
vein,  divided  at  a,  but  united  again  before  reaching  the 
dyke,  after  passing  which,  it  again  separates  into  several 
parts.  The  dyke  has  occasioned  a  fault,  by  which  the 
two  ends  of  the  vein  are  widely  separated.  The  lower 
branches  are  not  supposed  to  terminate  as  represented  in 
the  cut,  but  to  unite  again  and  proceed  downwards,  c  c. 


MINERAL    VEINS. 


209 


shows  how  veins  sometimes  change  their  dimensions,  be- 
ing narrow  in  some  parts  and  wide  in  others. 
Fig.  41. 


Sometimes  veins  containing  different  metals  cross  each 
other,  and  as  above  stated,  pass  from  one  kind  of  rock  into 
another.  Examples  of  both,  are  contained  in  the  tin  Croft 
mine  in  Cornwall. 

In  this  mine  are  five  copper  veins,  three  of  tin  and  one 
mixed,  all  within  about  a  furlong  of  space,  from  north  to 
south.  Two  of  the  tin  veins  proceed  in  a  straight  line, 
the  other  alters  its  course  repeatedly,  in  a  gradual  ap- 
proach to  the  perpendicular,  and  is  intersected  by  two  of 
the  copper  veins.  The  rocks  through  which  these  veins 
pass,  are  slate  and  granite. 

Fig.  42. 


Vi  \\ 


The  annexed  cut,  fig.  42,  from  Mr.  Phillips'  paper,  on 
this  mine,  will  make  the  direction  of  these  veins  under- 
stood, a,  a,  copper  veins ;  b,  tin  veins  j  c,  copper  and  tin 
intermixed.  The  dark  shade  is  slate,  and  the  while  parts 
granite.  The  vein  number  3,  passes  between  slate  and 
granite,  one  of  these  rocks  being  found  on  the  north  side, 
and  the  other  on  the  south.  Detached  masses  of  granite 
and  slate  are  found  in  this  vein,  and  also  in  number  2.  In 
18* 


210  THEORY    OF    VEINS. 

this  mine  it  was  frequently  the  case,  that  where  the  vein 
was  passing  through  slate,  it  contained  fragments  of  gran- 
ite, and  when  passing  through  granite,  it  contained  pieces 
of  slate. 


THEORY    OF    VEINS. 


No  subject  belonging  to  geology,  has  been  contested 
more  warmly,  than  the  theory  of  metallic  veins.  These 
may  be  considered  analagous  to  dykes,  which  are  veins 
of  stone  penetrating  strata  differing  from  themselves  in 
kind,  and  it  is  hardly  disputed  at  present,  that  dykes  have 
not  owed  their  origin  to  melted  matter  injected  from  be- 
low. In  like  manner  many  of  the  earlier  geologists,  and 
among  them  Dr.  Hutton,  supposed  that  the  metals  were 
forced  into  their  veins  in  a  fused  state,  the  expansive  force 
of  the  heat,  producing  the  fissures.  This  is  called  the 
igneous  theory  of  mineral  veins. 

Opposed  to  this  doctrine  is  that  of  Werner,  and  his 
followers,  who  believed  that  the  fissures  of  dykes  and 
veins  were  produced  by  the  shrinking  of  the  rocks  in 
which  they  are  contained,  and  that  the  metallic  veins  were 
afterwards  filled  with  the  metals  in  a  state  of  solution, 
poured  in  from  the  surface  of  the  earth.  This  is  called 
the  aqueous  theory. 

From  the  facts  we  have  stated  concerning  veins,  and 
what  will  be  stated  directly,  the  reader  will  see,  that  this 
latter  theory  contradicts  at  once,  the  principal  phenomena 
by  which  they  are  attended.  For  even  were  it  shown 
that  the  metals  were  soluble  in  water,  which,  however, 
cannot  be  true,  still  the  supposition  that  the  fissures  were 
filled  from  above,  could  not  be  maintained,  for  the  fol- 
lowing reasons.  First.  The  ores  of  most  veins  are  un- 
mixed, but  where  a  vein  contains  several  metals,  one 
kind  is  above,  or  below  the  other.  Were  the  metals 
poured  in  from  the  surface,  no  reason  can  be  assigned 
why  the  several  solutions  should  not  have  fallen  in  to- 
gether ;  or  why  one  should  have  filled  the  lower  part  of 
the  vein  and  the  other  the  upper.  Second.  When  a  vein 
passes  through  a  different  kind  of  rock,  as  from  sandstone 
through  limestone,  the  quality  of  the  ore  is  changed,  and 
it  becomes  richer  or  poorer.  This  is  a  general  fact  well 


THEORY  OF   VEINS.  211 

known  to  miners.  Now,  it  is  plain,  that  were  these  veins 
filled  by  solutions  poured  in,  the  kind  of  rock  could  not 
possibly  influence  the  quality  of  the  metal.  Third. 
When  a  fault  changes  the  strata  through  which  a  vein 
passes,  by  lifting  that  on  the  one  side,  or  throwing  down 
that  on  the  other,  so  as,  for  instance,  to  place  sandstone  on 
one  side  of  the  vein,  and  limestone  on  the  other  side,  the 
vein  is  never  so  rich  in  ore,  as  it  is  when  both  sides  are 
of  the  same  kind  of  rock.  This  fact  is  also  plainly  in- 
compatible with  the  aqueous  theory.  Fourth.  Were  the 
metals  poured  in  from  above,  we  should  expect  that  all  the 
narrow  parts  of  the  veins  would  soon  be  filled  with  earth 
mixed  with  the  solutions,  and,  therefore,  that  they  would 
reach  only  to  a  short  distance  below  the  surface,  whereas 
the  termination  of  a  vein,  as  already  stated,  has  never 
been  discovered.  Many  other  objections  might  be  stated ; 
but  these  are  sufficient  to  show  that  the  aqueous  theory  is 
incompatible  with  the  known  phenomena  which  metallic 
veins  present. 

If  now  we  advert  to  the  igneous  theory,  we  shall  find 
fewer,  absurdities,  because  much  must  here  be  left  to  con- 
jecture; -1}ut  the  difficulties  are  little  less  than  those  of  the 
aqueous. 

The  objections  already  made,  may  be  applied,  without 
modification  to  this  theory;  for  if  the  metals  were  injected 
in  a  state  of  fusion  from  below,  as  we  must  now  suppose, 
how  would  any  change  in  the  kind  or  position  of  the  stra- 
ta, change  their  quantities?  and  how  can  we  account  for 
the  fact,  that  veins  in  the  same  vicinity  contain  different 
kinds  of  metal,  perfectly  distinct,  as  tin  and  copper,  in  the 
Cornwall  mine  ?  Besides  these  objections,  the  heat  of  the 
fused  metal  would  have  produced  obvious  effects  on  the 
walls  of  the  veins,  as  is  the  case  with  basaltic  dykes.  The 
adoption  of  either  of  these  theories  is  therefore  only  a 
choice  of  dilemmas,  as  they  both  fail  entirely  to  account 
for  the  phenomena  observed. 

But  the  difficulty  concerning  metallic  veins,  does  not 
end  here ;  for  were  it  shown  in  the  most  satisfactory  man- 
ner, how  the  metals  might  have  been  soluble  in  water,  and 
in  what  way  they  might  have  been  introduced  from  the 
surface  into  the  fissures ;  or,  on  the  contrary,  could  it  be 
made  to  appear  that  all  the  phenomena  which  veins  pre- 
sent, were  compatible  with  the  igneous  theory,  still  the 
great  difficulty  would  remain  unanswered,  viz.,  whence  did 


212 


THEORY  OF  VEINS. 


the  metals  come,  before  they  were  melted  by  the  heat  below, 
or  dissolved  by  the  fluid  above  ? 

This,  after  all  the  arguments  that  have  been  employed 
on  both  sides,  is  the  principal  question  ;  and  the  reasonable 
answer  is  obvious.  The  metals  were  created  by  Him  who 
made  the  other  parts  of  the  earth ;  but  whether  they  were 
formed  at  the  same  time,  and  in  the  veins  as  we  see  them, 
or  whether  the  veins  were  fissures,  afterwards  filled  with 
the  metals ;  and,  if  so,  whether  they  came  from  below,  be- 
ing dissolved  by  heat,  or  from  above,  in  solution  with  some 
fluid,  are  questions  which  man,  with  all  his  curiosity,  seems 
destined  never  to  answer. 


Fig.  43. 


The  adjoining  cut  represents  the  most  common  varieties 
of  metallic  veins.  It  is  from  Sir  W.  T.  Brande's  "  Outlines 
of  Geology,"  and  is  placed  here  to  gratify  the  curiosity  of 
the  reader,  on  this  mysterious  subject. 

With  respect  to  the  direction  of  different  metallic  veins, 
we  have  already  observed,  that  in  the  same  neighborhood, 
they  commonly  run  parallel  with  each  other,  and  are  oft- 
en nearly,  or  quite  vertical,  or  perpendicular  to  the  line  of 
the  horizon.  But  the  inclination  of  different  series  of 
veins  is  found  at  every  angle,  from  the  perpendicular  to 
the  horizontal ;  and  the  manner  in  which  they  run  among 
the  strata  is  also  exceedingly  various.  In  most  instances, 
the  line  of  the  vein  is  across  that  of  the  strata,  but  some- 
times they  run  parallel  with  each  other,  and  the  veins 
spread  out  between  the  strata,  as  represented  at  No.  4. 
Sometimes,  also,  a  vein,  whose  general  direction  is  across 
the  strata,  will  take  a  short  turn  between  them,  and  then 
proceed  on  as  before,  as  represented  at  7.  The  branches 


MINES    AND    MINERS.  21J 

of  the  veins  do  not  terminate  as  they  seem  to  do  in  the 
figure,  but  commonly  join  themselves  together  again,  as 
seen  at  2. 

It  must  not  be  understood  that  metallic  veins  consist  of 
metals,  or  their  ores  alone  ^  on  the  contrary,  they  are  mix- 
ed with  greater  or  less  proportions  of  stony  matter.  Some- 
times the  ore  is  diffused  through  the  vein,  in  some  manner 
as  it  would  be,  had  the  stone  been  porous,  and  dipped  into 
a  solution  of  the  metal.  la  other  instances,  the  metal  lies 
in  concretions,  or  crystals,  entirely  surrounded  by  the  stone. 
An  instance  of  this  is  common  in  the  sulphurct  of  iron, 
the  crystals  of  which  appear  as  though  they  had  been, 
perfectly  formed,  and  then  dropped  into  the  stone  when 
in  a  soft  state.  Indeed,  so  mysterious  are  the  phenomena 
which  metallic  veins  exhibit,  as  in  the  present  state  of 
knowledge,  to  defy  all  hypothesis. 


MINES    AND    MINERS. 

The  means  of  arriving  at  a  vein,  or  working  a  mine, 
varied  according  to  the  nature  of  the  rock  or  country 
which  it  traverses,  and  are  dependent  upon  a  great  variety 
of  adventitious  circumstances,  frequently  connected  with 
those  under  which  the  vein  was  discovered  ;  which  disco- 
very is  often  accidental,  as  during  the  making  of  roads, 
cutting"  of  ditches,  or  draining  land;  or  sometimes  it  is 
arrived  at,  by  the  discovery  of  fragments,  or  pebbles  of 
ore  in  the  bed  of  rivers,  or  in  alluvial  soils  through  which 
streams  formerly  appear  to  have  passed.  Thus  the  an- 
cient mode  of  shading,  or  searching  for  tin,  consisted  in 
tracing  certain  stones  containing  that  metal,  to  the  vein 
whence  they  came.  Sometimes  the  course  of  a  vein  may 
be  learned  by  the  nature  of  the  fragments  and  stones  upon 
the  surface,  and,  more  especially,  when  it  is  of  iron,  by 
their  ocherous  tints.  A  knowledge  too,  of  the  substances 
which,  in  different  countries,  usually  accompany  the  ore 
of  a  metal,  forming  what  is  called  the  ganue,  or  matrix, 
is  often  of  much  importance  in  these  inquiries. 

Sometimes  the  springs  in  the  vicinity  of  metallic  veins 
are  so  tainted,  as  to  lead  to  their  discovery.  Of  this,  a 
singular  instance  occurred  some  years  ago  at  Dolgetty, 
where  the  peat  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  vein,  was  so 


214  MINES    AND    MINERS. 

impregnated  by  sulphate  of  copper,  as  to  leave  some  of 
the  metal  in  its  ashes  when  burned.  When  this  was  as- 
certained, the  injured  vegetation  guided  to  the  vein.  By 
the  retention,  therefore,  of  these  contaminated  waters,  in 
the  soil  near  the  vein,  it  may  become  unfit  for  vegeta- 
tion, and  thus  the  sterility  of  certain  patches  of  ground, 
may  indicate  the  existence  of  metallic  substances  in  the 
district. 

(Mr.  Brande,  who  writes  the  above  account,  has  not 
stated  what  species  of  copper  was  discovered.  It  was, 
however,  undoubtedly  a  sulphuret,  and  from  the  decom- 
position of  which,  the  sulphuric  acid  was  produced, 
which  uniting  with  the  oxide  of  the  metal,  formed  sul- 
phate of  copper.  In  the  Anglesea  copper-mine,  consider- 
able quantities  of  the  metal  are  obtained  from  the  natural 
solution  of  the  sulphate  in  water.  This  is  done  bythrow- 
ing  in  pieces  of  waste  iron,  on  which  the  copper  is  pre- 
cipitated.) 

"  There  are  no  class  of  persons,"  continues  Mr.  Brande, 
"  more  curiously  superstitious  than  miners  ;  and  hence  a 
variety  of  omens,  connected  with  the  interference  of  agents 
from  the  spiritual  world,  are  among  the  items  of  their 
creed.  Sometimes  while  under  ground,  they  fancy  they 
hear  another  pick  at  work,  announcing  the  presence  of 
a  little  man,  or  pixey-knocker,  in  some  neighboring  cavern, 
and  the  consequent  vicinity  of  a  good  course  of  ore.  Some- 
times the  divining  rod  is  resorted  to,  as  a  means  of  finding 
the  ore;  and  sometimes  it  is  said  that  flames  of  light, 
dancing  about  a  mining  district,  have  suddenly  perched 
upon  the  looked  for  vein  ;  a  circumstance  not  improbable, 
and  perhaps  referable  to  the  power  of  the  vein  to  conduct 
electricity.1' 

The  habits,  however,  of  the  miner,  are  those  of  indus- 
try and  perseverance,  which  sometimes  tempt  him  to  ex- 
ploits that  excite  astonishment  at  his  venturous  hardihood 
tl  The  rery  idea  of  a  descent  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  has  something  in  it  of  the  terrible,"  says  Mr.  Phil- 
lips, "  and  at  which  those  shudder  who  are  unacquainted 
with  practical  mining ;  but  such  is  the  force  of  habit,  that 
any  other  employment  rarely  tempts  him  to  forsake  his 
own.  The  occasional  perils  of  his  occupation  are  scarce- 
ly noticed,  or  if  noticed,  are  soon  forgotten.  He  walks, 
often  in  the  middle  of  the  night,  and  in  all  weathers,  two, 
or  three,  or  more  miles,  to  the  mine,  undresses,  and  puts 


MINES    AND    MINERS.  215 

On  his  underground  clothes,  and  with  his  tools,  slung 
over  his  shoulder,  descends  to  a  depth  of  1000  or  1200 
feet,  assisted  by  the  light  of  a  small  candle,  and  works 
in  the  bottom  of  the  mine  six  or  eight  hours,  amidst  the 
noise  of  the  \vorking  of  the  pumps,  with  as  much  alacrity 
and  with  as  little  sense  of  danger,  as  he  would  feel  amidst 
his  ordinary  occupations  above  ground.  We  should  be 
inclined  to  feel  pity  for  the  wretch,  who,  as  an  atonement 
for  his  crimes,  should  be  compelled  to  undergo  what  the 
Cornish  miner  voluntarily  undertakes  for  a  small  pittance, 
and  that  even  of  an  uncertain  amount." — W.  Phillip's 
Geol.  Trans. 

One  of  the  mines  in  the  parish  of  St.  Just,  is  wrought 
nearly  500  feet  under  the  sea,  beyond  low-water  mark ; 
and  the  sea,  in  some  places,  is  only  about  eighteen  feet 
over  the  back  of  his  workings  ;  insomuch  that  the  miners 
underneath  hear  the  break,  flux,  ebb,  and  re-flux  of  every 
wave ;  which,  upon  the  beach  overhead,  may  be  said  to 
have  the  run  of  the  Atlantic  ocean  for  many  hundred 
leagues,  and  consequently  are  amazingly  powerful  and 
boisterous.  They  also  hear  the  rumbling  noise  of  every 
nodule,  and  fragment  of  a  rock,  which  are  continually 
rolling  upon  the  submarine  stratum  5  which  altogether 
make  a  kind  of  thundering  roar,  which  would  surprise 
and  terrify  the  stranger.  Add  to  this,  that  several  parts 
of  the  land  which  were  richer  than  others,  have  been 
indiscreetly  hulked,  and  worked  within  four  feet  of  the 
sea,  whereby,  in  violent  stormy  weather,  the  noise  over- 
head has  been  so  tremendous,  that  the  workmen  have 
many  times  deserted  their  labor,  under  the  greatest  fear, 
lest  the  sea  should  break  in  upon  them. — Prycc's  Miner- 
alogia  Cornubiensis. 

In  former  times,  when  a  vein  of  metal  was  discovered, 
it  was  worked  to  a  certain  depth,  and  then  often  aban- 
doned, in  consequence  of  the  insufficiency  of  the  pumps  to 
carry  off  the  water,  or  the  expense  incurred  in  their  erec- 
tion and  working.  In  certain  situations,  however,  it  was 
found  that  this  water  run  off  at  lower  levels,  and  that  in 
most  instances  it  might  be  carried  away  by  an  under- 
ground tunnel,  commencing  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  pene- 
trating to  the  vein,  and  thus  forming  a  communication 
with  the  working  of  the  mine,  and  a  neighboring  valley. 
These  tunnels  are  now  called  adits,  and  when  it  is  re- 
solved to  try  a  vein,  one  of  these  underground  passages, 


216  PHENOMENA    OF    SPRINGS    AND    WELLS, 

about  six  feet  high,  and  two  and  a  half  wide,  is  begun  at 
the  bottom  of  the  neighboring  valley,  and  diiven  up  to  the 
Vein  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  off  the  water  ;  or  if  a 
mine  hag  an  engine  to  raise  the  water  from  a  greater 
depth  than  that  of  the  entrance  of  the  adit,  the  engine 
then,  instead  of  having  to  lift  the  water  to  the  surface, 
throws  it  off,  with  diminished  labor,  at  the  adit.  In  gen- 
eral, adits  are  nearly  horizontal,  for  although  a  declivity 
would  accelerate  the  drainage,  it  would  eater  the  mine  at 
a  less  depth.  The  importance  of  draining  mines  by  adits 
has  led  to  some  gigantic  undertakings  of  this  kind.  The 
great  Cornish  adit,  commences  in  a  valley  above  Carnon, 
near  the  sea,  and  branches  off  in  its  course  in  several  di- 
rections to  about  fifty  mines.  Most  of  the  mines  are  far 
below  the  level  of  the  adit,  the  water  being  raised  into  .it 
by  means  of  steam  engines.  The  entire  length  of  this- 
adit,  with  its  various  branches,  is  about  thirty  miles.  Bui 
the  greatest  length  of  any  one  branch  from  its  mouth  to 
the  mine,  is  that  of  Cardrew  Mine,  which  is  about  five  and 
a  half  miles.  The  greatest  depth  of  any  part  of  this  adit 
is  at  Wheel  Hope,  where  it  is  about  400  feet  deep.  It 
empties  itself  into  Falmouth  harbor.  Several  great  works 
of  the  same  kind  exist  in  different  parts  of  Great  Britain. 
The  adit  belonging  to  the  Duke  of  Bridge  water's  coal 
mines,  is  nearly  thirty  miles  long,  and  navigable  for  small 
boats. 

Where  an  adit  is  of  any  considerable  length,  it  is  ob- 
vious that  the  air  would  become  stagnant  in  it,  so  that  the 
workmen  would  be  unable  to  proceed.  To  prevent  this, 
and  also  to  enable  them  to  remove  the  produce  of  the 
excavation  without  transporting  it  to  great  distances,  per- 
pendicular openings,  called  shafts,  are  made  at  various  in- 
tervals. From  these  shafts,  levels,  or  galleries,  are  driven 
in  different  directions,  either  for  exploring  for  new  veins, 
or  for  removing  the  contents  of  those  already  known. — 
See  Brandos  Geology. 


PHENOMENA    OF    SPRINGS    AND    WELLS. 

The  origin  of  common  springs  is  easily  understood 
The  water  which  falls  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  pene- 
trates its  substance,  until  meeting  with  a  stratum  of  clay 


PHENOMENA    OF    SPRINGS    AND    WELLS.  21 

or  the  surface  of  a  continuous  rock,  which  hinders  its  de- 
scent, it  accumulates,  and  taking  the  direction  given  by 
these  impediments,  continues  its  course,  until  meeting  with 
an  aperture,  gushes  out  in  the  form  of  a  spring, 

Fig.  44. 


Suppose  a,  fig.  44,  to  be  a  gravel  hill,  and  b,  strata  of 
clay  or  rock,  impervious  to  water.  The  fluid  percola* 
ting  through  the  gravel  would  reach  the  impervious  stra- 
ta, along  which  it  would  run  until  it  found  an  outlet  at  c, 
at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  where  a  spring  would  be  formed, 
As  water  in  the  earth  observes  the  law  of  gravity,  springs 
are  most  commonly  found  lower  than  their  sources.  When 
however  the  fluid  is  intercepted  by  a  dyke,  which  rises  as 
hi<rh  as  its  source,  the  hydrostatic  law  of  tending  to  a  level, 
will  carry  it  as  high  as  its  source ;  though  this  in  fact  is 
probably  not  a  common  circumstance,  since  the  pressure 
of  the  water  generally  will  find  an  outlet  before  it  rises  to 
such  a  height. 

The  people  of  Artois  in  France,  for  a  long  time,  have 
been  in  the  practice  of  boring  into  the  earth,  until  they 
find  a  sheet  or  vein  of  water  which  rises  to  the  surface. 
These  are  called  Artesian  wells,  because  the  method  was 
first  invented,  or  employed  in  Artois. 

This  method  has  for  many  years  been  practised  in 
other  parts  of  Europe,  and  more  recently  in  this  country. 
The  size  of  the  boring  is  usually  three  or  four  inches  in 
diameter,  and  to  prevent  its  sides  from  falling  in  when  it 
passes  through  a  stratum  of  sand,  there  is  introduced  a 
jointed  tube,  which  in  Artois,  is  made  of  wood,  but  in 
other  countries  of  copper,  or  other  metal.  It  often  hap- 
pens that  after  passing  through  hundreds  of  feet,  without 
success,  a  vein  of  water  is  pierced,  which  immediately 
ascends  to  the  surface,  and  flows  over  the  end  of  the  tube. 
The  first  rush  of  the  water  is  sometimes  so  violent  as  to 
throw  it  many  feet  above  the  surface,  where  for  a  time  it 
plays  like  an  artificial  fountain,  and  then  continues  to  run 
in  a  steady  stream,  or  perhaps  sinks  away  below  the  sur« 
19 


J18  PHENOMENA    OF    SPRINGS    AND    WELLS, 

face  to  the  great  disappointment  of  the  operator.  This  vio- 
lent gush  of  the  water  appears  to  be  owing  to  the  pressure 
of  air  or  gas  on  its  surface,  before  it  was  pierced  by  the 
auger.  Dr.  Hildreth  states  that  in  boring  for  salt  in  Ohio, 
the  gas  rushed  out  with  such  force  as  to  throw  the  auger 
and  poles  into  the  top  of  a  tree. 

In  some  instances  large  quantities  of  water  have  been 
discharged  from  great  depths  in  this  manner.  In  1824,  a 
well  was  dug  at  Fulham,  near  the  English  Thames,  to  the 
depth  of  317  feet,  the  deepest  part  of  which  passed  through 
sixty-seven  feet  of  chalk.  On  piercing  through  the  chalk 
the  water  immediately  rose  to  the  surface,  and  discharged 
itself  at  the  rate  of  fifty  gallons  per  minute. 

Sometimes  borings  for  Artesian  wells  are  entirely  with- 
out success.  Thus,  at  Toulouse,  in  France,  the  excava- 
tion was  carried  to  the  immense  depth  of  1260  feet,  and 
abandoned  without  finding  water.  In  most  places,  indeed, 
there  is  no  doubt  but  success  must  depend  on  chance,  since 
neither  skill  nor  experience  in  ordinary  circumstances, 
can  ascertain  beforehand  the  direction  of  a  water  vein.  It 
appears,  however,  that  in  certain  situations,  water  bearing 
strata  underlay  considerable  extents  of  country,  as  will 
appear  by  the  following  account.. 

In  the  country  about  Modena,  in  Italy,  to  find  water, 
they  dig  through  several  kinds  of  soil,  until  they  come  to 
a  stratum  of  hard  calcareous  clay,  which  resembles  chalk. 
Here  they  begin  their  mason  work,  and  build  the  wall  at 
their  leisure,  carrying  it  up  to  the  surface,  without  the 
least  sign  of  water.  But  experience  has  taught  the  work- 
men not  to  expect  it  until  they  pierce  this  stratum,  when 
it  never  fails  to  reward  their  labors.  When  the  well  is 
finished  they  bore  through  this  hard  stratum  with  a  long 
auger,  but  take  care  to  leave  the  well  before  they  draw 
it  out  again;  which  when  they  have  done,  the  water 
springs  up  into  the  well,  and  in  a  short  time  rises  to  the 
brim,  or  in  some  instances  overflows  into  the  neighboring 
valley. 

The  source  of  these  wells  is  supposed  to  be  in  the  Ap- 
penine  mountains,  which  lie  not  a  great  distance  from 
Modena,  and  to  which  the  impervious  stratum  does  not 
reach.  The  water  from  the  mountains,  therefore  sinks 
below  this  stratum,  at  a  distance  from  these  wells,  and  is 
thus  prevented  from  rising  to  the  surface  until  this  ia 
pierced. 


PHENOMENA  OF  SPRINGS  AND  WELLS.  219 

Pig.  45. 


; 

Suppose  a,  fig.  45,  to  represent  the  Appenines,  sloping 
down  towards  Modena,  and  passing  under  the  secondary 
strata  at  b.  Suppose  that  the  impervious  strata  c,  does  not 
reach  the  side  of  the  mountain,  and  that  the  strata,  both, 
above  and  below  it,  admit  the  water  through  them ;  then 
the  fluid  would  not  rise  in  any  quantity  above  this  stratum, 
except  about  its  edges ;  but  the  pressure  being  constant  on 
its  lower  side,  because  the  source  is  elevated,  the  moment 
this  is  pierced  the  water  flows  above  it,  as  at  w,  which 
represents  a  well. 

In  many  instances,  wells  overflow  their  brims,  and  con- 
tinue to  discharge  water,  in  the  manner  of  springs.  These 
may  be  springs  deeply  situated,  which  happen  to  be  struck 
by  the  well,  or  they  may  be  dishes  of  water,  confined  by- 
dykes,  or  by  impervious  strata,  inclining  towards  each, 
other. 

The  annexed  cut,  fig.  46, 
represents  inclined  strata  cov- 
ered with  alluvial  deposites. 
The  water  descending  along 
the  strata,  would  be  lost  in 
the  adjoining  valley,  was  it 
not  intercepted  by  the  dyke,  d,  which  serves  as  an  imper- 
vious dam.  The  water,  therefore,  rises  and  forms  springs 
along  the  inside  of  the  dyke.  Now,  if  a  well  be  sunk  at 
w,  the  water  will  rise  to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  if 
the  inclined  rocks  be  considerably  higher  than  the  well,  it 
Avill  overflow.  If  the  strata  form  a  dish,  one  side  of  which 
is  considerably  higher  than  the  other,  the  same  effect  will 
be  produced. 

London  and  its  vicinity  stand  over  a  formation,  of  rath- 
er a  peculiar  kind,  called  London  clay.  Its  direction  is 
nearly  horizontal,  and  its  thickness  from  100  to  500  feet. 
It  is  covered  with  alluvial  deposites  of  various  thickness; 
so  that  although  the  surface  of  the  clay  may  be  horizon- 


Fig.  46. 


220  PHENOMENA  OF  SPRINGS  AND  WELLS. 

tal,  till  the  depths  of  the  wells  are  various,  according  to 
the  thickness  of  the  alluvium.  Until  within  a  few  years, 
most  of  the  wells  in  and  about  London,  were  sunk  no 
deeper  than  the  surface  of  this  clay,  and  its  impervious  na- 
ture is  of  vast  importance  to  that  great  city,  since  the  water 
is  thus  retained,  and  a  plentiful  supply  is  always  fur- 
nished by  means  of  shallow  wells.  But  this  water, 
though  limpid,  is  hard  and  impure.  That,  however, 
which  is  drawn  from  below  the  clay,  is  perfectly  soft  and 
transparent ;  and  hence  all  the  pumps  about  London,  which 
furnish  such  water,  are  of  great  depth,  piercing  the  sand 
below  the  clay. 

This  water,  says  Mr.  Conybeare,  frequently  rises  so  in- 
stantaneously, on  passing  through  the  clay,  as  not  to  suffer 
the  well  digger  to  escape,  without  rising  above  his  head. 
It  appears  to  rise  in  different  places  to  different  heights. 
Thus,  at  Liptrap's  distillery,  near  the  Thames,  it  rises  no 
higher  than  the  level  of  that  river ;  but  at  Tottenham,  four 
miles  north  of  London,  it  rises  sixty  feet  above  that  level ; 
while  at  Epping,  fifteen  miles  north  of  London,  the  water 
rises  to  within  twenty-six  feet  of  the  summit  of  the  well, 
which  is  340  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Thames,  and 
therefore  314  feet  above  that  level.  This  well  is  420  feet 
deep,  of  which  200  feet  were  sunk  through  by  digging,  and 
220  bored  with  an  auger,  four  inches  in  diameter.  After 
boring  to  this  depth,  no  water  being  found,  the  project 
was  relinquished,  and  the  well  was  covered  over ;  but 
at  the  end  of  five  months  it  was  found  that  the  water  had 
risen  to  within  twenty-six  feet  of  the  surface,  and  has  so 
continued  ever  since.  The  sinking  of  this  well  was  there- 
fore 340  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Thames,  and  eighty 
feet  below  it. 

Another  well,  two  miles  from  this,  at  Hunter's  Hall,  is 
350  feet  deep,  but  its  summit  is  seventy  higher  than  that 
at  Epping,  and  410  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Thames. 
The  water  in  this  well  stands  130  feet  above  its  bottom, 
which  is  sixty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Thames ;  the  ac- 
tual elevation  of  this  water,  therefore,  is  not  so  great  as 
that  at  Epping,  by  fifty-four  feet. 

These  facts  will  be  better  understood  by  fig.  47,  where 
H  marks  Hunter's  Hall ;  E  Epping ;  T  Tottenham  ;  L  Lip- 
trap's  well,  at  Mile  End.  a,  b,  is  the  level  of  the  sea,  as 
indicated  by  that  of  the  Thames.  It  will  be  observed  that 
all  the  wells  reach  below  the  level  of  the  Thames,  except 


PHENOMENA    OF    SPRINGS    AND    WELLS.  221 

Fig.  47. 


that  at  Hunters'  Hall.  The  numbers  will  be  chiefly  un- 
derstood by  the  explanations  already  given.  Thus  the 
water  in  the  well  at  Hunters'  Hall,  stands  130  feet  from 
its  bottom,  the  well  is  350  feet,  and  its  mouth  410  above 
the  level  of  the  Thames.  That  at  Epping,  is  420  feet 
deep,  its  summit  is  340  feet  above  the  Thames,  and  its 
bottom,  80  feet  below  it;  the  water  is  314  feet  deep,  and 
it  rises  to  within  26  feet  of  the  top.  The  well  at  Totten- 
ham is  130  feet  deep ;  its  top  is  70  feet  above  the  Thames, 
and  its  bottom  GO  feet  below  it,  and  the  water  rises  60  feet 
above  the  sea. 

All  these  wells  being  sunk  below  the  London  clay,  and 
deriving  their  water  from  the  same  source,  it  might  be 
expected  that  agreeably  to  the  general  law  of  hydrostatics 
that  their  surfaces  \vould  have  a  common  level.  The  Lon- 
don clay,  as  we  have  stated,  is  nearly  on  a  horizontal  lev- 
el ;  the  depth  of  the  well  at  Hunters'  Hall,  however  shows 
a  slight  rising  of  the  strata  there,  but  still  the  water  in  that 
well  does  not  rise  so  high  by  54  feet,  as  that  in  the  well 
at  Epping. 

Now  did  the  water  which  supplies  these  wells,  exist  in 
a  great  reservoir,  so  that  a  full  and  instantaneous  commu- 
nication could  take  place  between  the  different  points 
pierced  by  the  wells,  then  the  water  in  them  all  would 
stand  at  the  same  hydrostatic  level ;  whereas  in  fact,  no 
such  case  exists.  The  strata  on  the  contrary,  which  bear 
the  water,  though  more  or  less  porous,  are  still  too  close 
to  allow  the  fluid  to  pass  with  rapidity  ;  hence  such  strata 
may  be  considered  as  acting  on  the  water  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  a  series  of  imperfect  dams.  Now  although  the  wa- 
ter in  the  present  case  has  the  same  general  source,  being 
that  which  falls  on  the  highlands,  beyond  the  confines  of 
the  London  clay  formation,  and  percolating  so  as  to  rise 
under  it,  yet  from  the  want  of  free  communication,  it  will 
19* 


222  PHENOMENA    OF    SPRINGS    AND    WELLS. 

not  everywhere  rise  to  the  same  height  when  the  clay  is 
pierced,  but  the  well  will  only  drain  that  which  presses 
with  the  greatest  force  in  its  immediate  vicinity,  without 
affecting  that  which  is  at  a  distance.  If  there  is  a  free 
and  extensive  drain  in  any  part  of  such  a  formation,  then 
it  is  obvious  that  t.he  water  in  that  vicinity  Avill  rise  no 
higher  than  the  level  of  the  drain.  Thus  the  water  in 
the  well  marked  L  on  the  cut,  rises  no  higher  than  the 
Thames,  bacause  that  river  cuts  through  the  London  clay, 
and  serves  as  a  drain  to  the  same  water  bearing  stratum 
which  supplies  the  other  wells. 

Wells  situated  in  level  countries,  and  in  alluvial  forma- 
tions, generally  require  to  be  sunk  only  thirty  or  forty 
feet,  and  sometimes  no  more  than  twenty  before  water  is 
found.  These  are  not  commonly  supplied  by  springs,  but 
merely  by  the  draining  of  the  water  which  exists  within 
the  circuit  of  a  few  yards,  into  a  cavity.  During  severe 
droughts,  many  such  wells  fail,  which  shows  that  they  are 
supplied  only  by  the  rain  which  percolates  from  the  sur- 
face, and  not  by  deeply  seated  springs. 

But  there  are  some  extraordinary  phenomena  connect- 
ed with  springs  which  require  a  different  explanation,  if 
indeed  they  can  be  explained  at  all. 

There  is  little  difficulty  with  respect  to  those  springs 
which  rise  in  salt  marshes,  or  which  gush  from  the  fis- 
sures of  rocks  under  the  sea.  The  sources  of  these  are 
in  the  distant  hills ;  or  in  the  strata  of  the  vicinity,  situated 
higher  than  their  outlets ;  and  the  presence  of  the  sea  or 
marsh  it  is  plain,  could  not  affect  them,  since  the  water 
from  these  do  not  penetrate  their  sources.  This  principle 
will  also  account  for  such  springs  as  rise  on  small  islands 
at  little  distances  from  the  sea  shore,  where  they  could  not 
have  been  collected  from  the  rain  falling  there. 

There  are  however  springs  which  arise  near  the  tops 
of  hills,  and  which  are  so  situated  as  to  make  it  apparent 
that  their  sources  could  not  exist  in  the  same  hills,  nor  in 
those  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  The  water  with  which 
such  are  supplied,  must  therefore,  come  from  the  higher 
hills  or  mountains,  at  a  distance,  and  passing  the  inter- 
vening valley,  rise  by  hydrostatic  force  to  these  outlets. 
Many  rocks  are  so  full  of  fissures,  as  to  present  no  diffi- 
culty in  supposing  that  considerable  rivulets  might  run 
among  them,  at  great  depths  below  the  surface.  Rocks 
also  frequently  contain  large  cavities,  so  that  some  river* 


PHENOMENA    OF    SPRINGS    AND    WELLS.  223 

sink  down  into  them  and  disappear  for  miles,  when  they 
again  issue  from  their  hiding  places,  and  continue  their 
courses.  In  limestone  districts  it  is  well  known  that  large 
cavities  are  of  common  occurrence.  Perhaps,  therefore, 
the  manner  in  which  water  is  conveyed  to  the  springs, 
situated  as  above  described,  may  be  as  follows.  Water, 
from  hills  at  a  distance,  and  more  elevated  than  the 
springs,  descend  through  fissures,  to  a  cavity  in  the  valley, 
which  cavity  communicates  with  another  fissure  running 
to  the  spring.  In  this  manner  the  hydrostatic  pressure 
from  the  highest  hill,  would  overcome  that  from  the  lower 
one,  and  the  water  would  be  perpetually  transferred  from 
one  to  the  other. 

Pig.  48. 


The  annexed  cut,  fig.  48,  will  make  this  obvious.  The 
rills  a,  are  supposed  to  unite  and  fall  into  the  cavity  be- 
low b,  from  which,  the  greater  pressure  from  a,  forces  the 
water  up  the  hill,  through  a  fissure,  to  c,  where  the  spring 
issues. 

That  water  runs  in  considerable  streams  under  the 
earth  and  among  the  fissures  of  rocks,  is  proved  by  its 
issuing  in  springs,  sometimes  in  large  quantities.  Dr. 
Macculloch  states,  that  a  spring  in  Staffordshire,  is  com- 
puted to  discharge  more  water  annually,  than  all  the  falls 
in  the  surrounding  country ;  and  the  same,  even  to  a 
greater  degree,  is  true  of  that  of  the  Sorgne,  in  France. 

A  writer  in  Featherstonhaugh's  Journal,  for  August, 
1831,  p.  65,  refers  to  a  great  body  of  water  which  issues 
from  the  ground,  ten  miles  from  Harrisburgh,  Virginia,  and 
which  is  known  under  the  name  of  "  Big  Spring."  He 
says,  "  it  should  rather  be  called  a  river,  so  large  is  the 
body  of  water  which  rises  suddenly  from  the  foot  of  a 
limestone  hill,  and  continues  in  a  stream  some  yards  in 
breadth,  and  half  a  foot  deep,  with  force  sufficient  to  turn 
two  large  mills  immediately  below." 

There  is  a  spring  at  Kingston,  R.  I.,  which  arises  from 
primitive  rocks,  and  discharges  such  a  quantity  of  water 


224  CHANGE    OF    CLIMATE. 

that  a  grist  mill  has  been  driven  by  it  for  a  great  numbei 
of  years,  and  more  recently,  a  large  cotton  factory  has 
been  erected  below  the  corn  mill,  which  depended  en- 
tirely on  the  water  of  this  spring  to  turn  its  whole  ma- 
chinery. 

From  these,  and  such  like  facts,  there  can  be  but  little 
doubt,  that  small  streams  are  constantly  running  under 
ground  among  the  crevices  of  the  rocks,  and  that  such 
springs  are  formed  by  a  union  of  many  of  these  tributaries, 
in  a  similar  manner  to  which  larger  streams  are  formed 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  by  the  union  of  several  smaller 
ones. 


CHANGE    OF    CLIMATE. 

It  will  be  the  object  of  this  section  to  show,  that  the 
temperature  of  the  earth's  surface,  at  some  period  anterior 
to  the  era  of  history,  suffered  a  material,  and  probably  a 
sudden  change,  and  that  in  consequence,  the  climates  of 
different  countries  have  become  colder  than  they  were  at 
some  remote  period. 

This  is  a  subject  of  great  interest  in  geology,  and  al- 
though the  idea  of  a  universal  change  of  climate  was  once 
strongly  controverted,  most  writers,  at  the  present  day, 
consider  that  there  is  sufficient  evidence,  that  the  tem- 
perature of  the  earth's  surface  is  much  lower  than  for*" 
merly. 

"  That  the  climate  of  the  northern  hemisphere  has  un- 
dergone an  important  change,"  says  Mr.  Lyell,  "  and  that 
its  mean  annual  temperature  must  once  have  resembled 
that  now  experienced  within  the  tropics,  was  the  opinion 
of  some  of  the  naturalists  who  first  investigated  the  con- 
tents of  ancient  strata.  Their  conjecture  became  more 
probable,  when  the  shells  and  corals  of  the  secondary 
rocks  were  more  carefully  examined,  for  these  organic  re- 
mains were  found  to  be  intimately  connected,  by  generic 
affinity,  with  species  now  living  in  warmer  latitudes.  At  a 
later  period,  many  reptiles,  such  as  turtles,  tortoises,  and 
large  saurian  (lizard-like)  animals,  were  discovered  in  the 
European  strata,  in  great  abundance,  and  they  supplied  new 
and  powerful  arguments  from  analogy,  in  support  of  the 
doctrine,  that  the  heat  of  the  climate  had  been  great  when 


CHANGE    OF    CLIMATE.  225 

our  secondary  formations  were  deposited.  Lastly,  when 
the  botanist  turned  his  attention  to  the  specific  determina- 
tion of  fossil  plants,  the  evidence  acquired  the  fullest  con- 
firmation ;  for  the  flora  of  a  country  is  peculiarly  influ- 
enced by  its  temperature ;  and  the  ancient  vegetation  of 
the  earth  might  more  readily  than  the  forms  of  animals, 
have  afforded  conflicting  proofs,  had  the  popular  theory 
been  without  foundation. 

"  It  is  not  merely  reasoning  from  analogy,  that  we  are 
led  to  infer  a  diminution  of  temperature,  in  the  climate  of 
Europe;  there  are  direct  proofs  in  confirmation  of  the 
same  doctrine,  in  the  only  countries  hitherto  investigated 
by  expert  geologists,  where  we  could  expect  to  meet  with 
direct  proofs.  It  is  not  in  England,  or  Northern  France, 
but  around  the  borders  of  the  Mediterranean,  from  the 
South  of  Spain  to  Calabria,  and  in  the  islands  of  the  Me- 
diterranean, that  we  must  look  for  conclusive  evidence  on 
this  question ;  for  it  is  not  in  strata,  where  the  organic  re- 
mains belong  to  extinct  .species,  but  where  living  species 
abound  in  a  fossil  state,  that  the  theory  of  climate  can  be 
subjected  to  the  experimentum  crucis.  In  Sicily,  Ischia, 
and  Calabria,  where  the  fossil  testacea,  of  the  more  recent 
strata,  belong  almost  entirely  to  species  now  known  to 
inhabit  the  Mediterranean,  the  conchologist  remarks, 
that  individuals  in  the  inland  deposites,  exceed  in  their 
average  size  the  living  analogues." — LyeWs  Geology, 
vol.  i.  p.  92. 

The  shells  thus  existing  in  strata,  and  in  the  fossil  state, 
differ  in  no  respects  from  those  now  found  in  the  adjoining 
sea,  except  in  size;  the  ancient  ones  being  much  larger 
than  those  now  living.  Hence  the  conclusion,  that  because 
these  animals  do  not  attain  the  size  the  same  species  did 
anciently,  the  climate  has  deteriorated. 

It  has  also  been  ascertained  that  some  species  of  shells 
found  in  the  fossil  state,  in  Italy,  are  now  living  in  the  In- 
dian Ocean,  and  that  these  correspond  in  size ;  whereas  the 
same  species  existing  at  present  in  the  Mediterranean,  are 
comparatively  dwarfs  in  size,  having  been  stinted  in  their 
growth,  for  want  of  the  heat  which  now  exists  in  the  In- 
dian Ocean. 

These  circumstances  go  far  to  show,  that  the  climate  of 
Italy  is  not  so  hot  as  formerly,  for  it  is  well  known,  that 
these  shells  attain  a  size  in  some  proportion  to  the  heat  of 
the  climate  in  which  they  are  found. 


226  CHANGE    OF    CLIMATE. 

Another  and  perhaps  stronger  proof*  is  drawn  from  the 
vegetable  remains,  which  are  found  in  various  strata,  es- 
pecially in  those  of  coal.  M.  Adolphe  Brogniart,  in  his 
"  Treatise  on  the  classification  and  distribution  of  fossil 
plants,"  has  come  to  the  following,  among  other  conclu- 
sions on  this  subject.  First.  "  That  in  the  strata  of  coal 
and  anthracite,  the  vegetables  preserved  are  nearly  all 
cryptogamous,  or  monocotyledono'us*  plants,  as  ferns,t 
equisetums,|  and  lycopodiums,§  &c.,  and  that  some  of 
these  tribes  which  no  longer  exist,  except  as  fossils,  grew 
to  an  immense  size  in  Europe." 

(Some  of  the  Equisetums  were  ten  or  twenty  feet  high, 
and  from  six  to  twelve  inches  in  diameter.  These  tribes 
in  our  climate  at  the  present  day,  grow  from  one  to  three 
feet  in  height,  and  are  ordinarily  about  the  size  of  a  pipe- 
stem.  A  specimen  of  this  tribe  from  the  borders  of  Ca- 
nada, now  before  us,  is  more  than  two  inches  in  diameter, 
a  proof  that  the  climate  of  North  America,  as  well  as  that 
of  Europe  has  changed.  Plants  of  the  fern  kind,  in  some 
parts  of  Europe,  attained  the  height  of  forty  or  fifty  feet ; 
and  the  aborescent  club-mosses  were  sixty  or  seventy  feet 
high.  No  plants  of  these  tribes,  at  the  present  day,  ever 
attain  one  fourth  of  these  sizes.) 

Second.  "  That  in  the  higher  strata,  a  great  variety  of 
fossil  vegetables  exist,  which,  for  the  most  part,  appear  to 
belong  to  similar  tribes  of  plants,  if  not  in  species,  at 
least  in  genera,  to  vegetables  which  still  inhabit  the  hot- 
test regions  of  the  earth ;  nor  is  it  probable  that  they  have 
been  transported  to  the  places  where  they  are  found  in 
Europe,  from  such  climates,  since  their  most  delicate  parts 
are  uninjured."  It  is  therefore,  reasonable  to  suppose,  that 
since  the  growth  of  these  vegetables,  the  climate  of  Europe 
has  suffered  a  great  change. 


The  Count  Sternberg,  author  of  a  splendid  work,  the 
"  Botanical  and  Geological  Flora,"  of  the 


le  Ancient  world, 


*  Plants  with  oae  Cotyledon,  as  wheat,  Indian  corn,  and  the 
grasses. 

t  Polypodies  and  Brakes. 

t  Horsetails.    The  scouring  rush  is  a  species. 

§  Ground-pine  or  Club-mosses.    The  ground-pine,  employed  in 
dressing  churches  for  Christmas,  is  an  example. 


CHANGE  OF  CLIMATE.  227 

M  concludes,  that  the  vegetation  of  which  bituminous  coal," 
has  been  formed,  consisted  of  several  species  of  large  trees, 
of  which  he  has  in  his  collection  trunks  eighteen  inches  in 
diameter.  These  trees  seem  all  to  have  belonged  to  the 
monocotyledonous  or  polycotyledonous*  families.  They 
were  palms,  bamboos,  &c.,  plants  which  at  the  present  day 
are  found  only  in  hot  climates. 

"  If,"  says  Dr.  Ure,  "  we  examine  the  fossilized  fruits 
found  m  the  upper  (coal)  strata,  we  shall  see  that  several 
of  them  evidently  belonged  to  the  same  family  of  palms  ; 
but  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  facts  connected  with  this 
subject  is,  that  none  of  these  fruits  appear  to  have  grown 
on  the  palms  with  fan-shaped  leaves ;  but  on  the  contrary, 
that  all  the  fruits  that  have  been  delineated  by  authors, 
seem  referable  to  the  genera  with  pinnate,  (feather-formed) 
leaves." 

There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  palms,  with  fan- 
shaped  leaves,  (fan-palms,)  once  covered  Europe  with 
their  lofty  vegetation,  since  petrified  specimens  of  these 
plants  exist  in  great  abundance.  The  opinion  formerly 
entertained,  that  these  trees  had  been  transported  to  Eu- 
rope from  warmer  climates,  appears  in  the  present  state 
of  knowledge,  to  be  without  the  least  foundation,  since 
not  only  trees  with  entire  branches  have  been  found,  but 
also  roots  in  the  places  where  they  grew.  In  some  coal 
mines,  have  been  discovered  the  trunks  of  large  trees 
standing  in  their  original  vertical  positions,  around  which 
several  strata  of  rock  and  coal  have  been  deposited,  which 
fact  is  clearly  incompatible  with  the  hypothesis  of  trans- 
portation. 

The  existence  of  the  bones  of  animals  of  enormous  di- 
mensions, though  of  extinct  species,  afford  by  analogy,  an 
indication  of  the  tropical  heat  of  Europe,  at  some  remote 
period. 

The  great  megcdosaurus,  (great  lizard,)  and  the  still 
more  gigantic  iguanadon  (iguana-toothed,)  says  Mr.  Man- 
tell,  to  which  the  groves  of  palms  and  arborescent  ferns, 
would  be  mere  beds  of  reeds,  must  have  been  of  such  pro- 
digious magnitude,  that  the  existing  animal  creation  pre- 
sents us  with  no  fit  objects  of  comparison.  Imagine  an 


*  Seeds  consisting  of  more  than  two  seed  lobes.    Very  few  plants 
of  this  character  are  known  at  the  present  day. 


228  CHANGE  OF  CLIMATE. 

animal  of  the  lizard  tribe,  three  or  four  times  as  large  as 
the  largest  crocodile,  having  jaws  equal  in  size  to  those  of 
the  rhinoceros,  and  a  head  crested  with  horns.  Such  must 
have  been  the  iguanadon. 

This  huge  animal  is  supposed,  from  the  dimensions  of 
some  of  his  bones,  to  have  been  about  seventy  feet  in  length, 
with  a  body  as  thick  as  that  of  an  elephant.  Its  skeleton, 
was  found  in  Sussex,  England. 

The  bones  of  the  megalosaurus,  also  found  in  England, 
indicate  an  animal  of  the  lizard  kind,  about  forty  feet  long, 
and  when  standing,  eight  feet  high. 

It  is  true  that  these  animals  no  longer  exist,  and  there- 
fore only  indicate  a  change  of  climate,  by  the  analogy, 
that  animals  of  similar  tribes,  and  of  great  size,  are  found 
exclusively  in  tropical  climates  at  the  present  day.  But 
there  is  not  wanting  other  evidence  of  such  a  change,  and 
perhaps  as  direct  as  the  nature  of  such  a  case  will  allow, 
in  the  fact  clearly  proved  by  Dr.  Buckland,  that  animals 
once  inhabited  Europe,  the  genera  of  which  are  known  to 
live  only  in  tropical  climates.  The  following  are  the  cir- 
cumstances : 

A  cave  was  discovered  by  some  workmen  at  Kirkdale, 
in  Yorkshire,  in  1821.  Its  mouth  was  at  first  nearly  cov- 
ered by  rubbish,  but  on  removing  this,  and  exploring  the 
interior,  there  was  found  a  cavern  240  feet  in  length,  four- 
teen feet  high,  and  from  three  to  seven  feet  wide.  The 
rock  being  of  limestone,  its  roof  was  covered  with  hang- 
ing stalactites,*  and  its  floor  in  many  places  incrusted 
with  stalagmite.f  The  floor  was  covered  with  a  coat  of 
soft  mud,  or  loam,  about  a  foot  thick,  and  in  this  were 
found  the  bones  of  various  animals.  These  were  in  a  high 
state  of  preservation,  they  were  broken,  but  none  appeared 
as  though  they  had  been  worn  by  the  action  of  water, 


*  Stalactites  are  formed  by  the  percolation  of  water  through  lime- 
stone rocks,  by  which  calcareous  particles  are  dissolved,  and  sub- 
sequently left  by  the  evaporation  of  the  water,  on  the  roof  of  the 
cavern.  They  hang  like  icicles,  and  gradually  increase  by  the 
deposition  of  stony  particles,  in  concentric  circles. 

t  Stalagmite  is  formed  by  the  water  which  falls  from  the  stalac- 
tites to  the  floor  of  the  cavern,  where  by  evaporation,  it  deposiles 
its  calcareous  matter.  Sometimes  the  stalactite  and  the  stalagmite 
meet  each  other,  and  joining,  form  pillars,  extending  from  the  floor 
to  the  roof  of  the  cavern. 


CHANGE  OF  CLIMATE.  229 

or  sand,  which  most  probably  would  have  been  the  case, 
had  they  drifted  there  in  the  naked  state. 

The  genera  of  animals  to  which  the  Kirkdale  bones  be- 
long amounted  to  twenty-three  in  number ;  viz.,  Hyena, 
Tiger,  Bear,  Wolf,  Fox,  Weasel,  Ox,  Elephant,  Rhinoce- 
ros, Hippopotamus,  Horse,  Deer  three  species,  Hare,  Rab- 
bit, Water-rat,  Mouse,  Raven,  Pigeon,  Lark,  Duck,  and 
Partridge. 

A  great  proportion  of  these  animals  belonged  to  species 
now  supposed  to  be  extinct,  though  the  genera  of  them  all 
are  still  living. 

On  examination  of  all  the  circumstances,  Professor 
Buckland  concludes  that  this  cave  was  the  den  of  hyenas, 
and  that  the  multitude  of  bones  thus  discovered,  were  car- 
ried into  this  place  by  these  animals,  and  therefore  that  the 
hyena,  an  animal  now  inhabiting  the  hottest  climates,  once 
lived  in  England. 

These  bones  were,  without  exception,  broken  or  gnawed, 
so  that,  among  the  vast  numbers  the  cave  contained,  there 
could  hardly  be  found  all  the  pieces  for  a  single  limb, 
much  less  for  an  entire  skeleton.  The  great  number  of 
hyenas  which  had  died  in  this  cave,  or  whose  skulls  had 
been  carried  there,  was  proved  by  the  number  of  the  canine 
teeth  of  this  animal,  which  it  contained. 

Professor  Buckland  states  that  one  collector  obtained 
more  than  300  of  these  teeth,  and  as  each  individual  has 
only  four  of  this  kind,  these  must  have  belonged  to  at 
least  seventy-five  of  these  animals.  But  from  the  num- 
ber of  such  teeth  found,  besides  the  300.  and  other  cir- 
cumstances, it  was  judged  that  not  less  than  from  200  to 
300  hyenas  had  perished  in  this  cave.  Hence,  it  is  con- 
cluded, that  the  cave  had  been  for  a  long  series  of  years  a 
den  of  hyenas,  and  that  these  bones  were  carried  there  as 
their  food. 

This  supposition  is  supported  by  the  well  known  habits 
and  appetites  of  these  animals  at  the  present  day ;  their 
habitations  being  the  deep  recesses  of  the  rocks,  and  their 
food  the  carcasses  and  bones  of  animals  already  dead,  and 
decayed. 

The  immense  power  of  the  jaw,  which  these  animals 
possess,  enables  them  to  break  and  masticate  bones  in  a 
manner  which  no  other  animal  can  do.  When  they  at- 
tack a  dog,  it  is  said  they  begin  by  biting  off  his  leg  at  a 
"single  snap;"  and  Prof,  Buckland,  after  a  part  of  his 
20 


230  CHANGE  OF  CLIMATE. 

work  was  written,  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  a  Cape 
Hyena,  in  confinement,  crush  the  thigh  bone  of  an  ox,  in 
a  manner  which  convinced  him  that  the  bones  in  the 
cave  had  undergone  a  similar  operation.  The  animal  bit 
off  all  the  upper  part  of  the  bone,  which  he  swallowed  in 
the  shape  of  fragments,  licking  out  the  marrow  from  the 
cavity.  The  lower  part,  being  exceedingly  hard,  he  did 
not  eat;  and  with  this  Prof.  Buckland  compared  the  frag- 
ments of  similar  bones  found  in  the  cave.  His  words  are, 
"  I  preserved  all  the  fragments  and  gnawed  parts  of  this 
bone,  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  by  the  side  of  those 
I  have  from  the  ante-diluvian  den  in  Yorkshire :  there  is 
absolutely  no  difference  between  them,  except  in  point  of 
age." 

This  experiment  was  followed  by  presenting  the  fero- 
cious animal  with  other  bones.  "  I  gave  him,  successive- 
ly," says  he,  "  three  shin  bones  of  a  sheep,  he  snapped 
them  asunder  in  a  moment,  dividing  each  into  two  parts, 
all  of  which  he  swallowed  entire,  and  without  the  small- 
est mastication.  On  the  keeper  putting  a  spar  of  wood, 
two  inches  in  diameter,  into  his  den,  he  crushed  it  in 
pieces,  as  if  it  had  been  touch-wood,  and  in  a  minute  the 
whole  was  reduced  to  a  mass  of  splinters.  The  power  of 
his  jaws  far  exceeded  any  animal  force  of  the  kind  I  ever 
saw  exerted,  and  reminded  me  of  nothing  so  much  as  a 
miner's  crushing  mill,  or  the  scissors  with  which  they 
cut  off  bars  of  iron  and  copper,  in  the  metal  foundries." — 
Reliquice  Diluviance,  p.  37. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  carcasses  of  the  Ele- 
phant, Rhinoceros,  and  Hippopotamus,  were  carried  into 
this  cave  in  an  entire  state ;  for  neither  the  strength  of 
the  Hyena,  nor  the  size  of  the  aperture  would  favor  such 
an  opinion.  The  state  of  the  bones,  on  the  contrary, 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  they  were  dragged  in,  one  at 
a  time,  from  the  carcasses  of  such  animals  as  were  found 
dead  in  the  neighborhood,  as  food  for  these  ferocious 
beasts. 

On  the  hypothesis  that  these  animals  had  entered  the 
Kirkdale  cavern,  when  living,  and  of  their  own  accord,  it 
"  may  at  once  be  objected,  that  unless  the  size  of  the  aper- 
ture was  much  larger  formerly  than  when  discovered,  this 
would  have  been  impossible ;  besides,  the  elephant,  horse, 
hippopotamus,  and  most  of  the  other  animals  whose  bones 
the  cave  contained,  never  voluntarily  go  into  such  places. 


CHANGE    OF    CLIMATE.  231 

The  idea  has  also  been  suggested,  that  these  animals 
might  have  taken  shelter  in  this  place  in  order  to  avoid 
some  catastrophe,  perhaps  the  deluge.  But  this  opinion 
is  fully  as  improbable  as  the  other,  for  in  addition  to  the 
fact,  that  most  of  these  animals  have  never  been  known 
to  enter  caves,  on  any  occasion — no  circumstances  can  be 
imagined,  which  would  have  forced  the  deer  and  the  tiger, 
the  horse  and  the  wolf,  the  fox  and  the  rabbit,  together 
with  the  hyena  and  elephant,  to  take  shelter  in  the  same 
place,  at  the  same  time.  But  what  makes  all  this  improb- 
able, and  indeed  impossible,  is,  that  not  a  single  entire 
skeleton  was  found  in  the  cave ;  clearly  proving  that  the 
bones,  only,  of  these  animals  were  carried  there. 

All  these  facts  and  circumstances  prove,  in  as  satisfac- 
tory a  manner  as  can  be  desired,  that  England  was  once 
inhabited  by  elephants,  hyenas,  tigers,  and  other  animals 
belonging  only  to  hot  climates;  for  that  these  bones  could 
have  been  drifted  from  a  foreign  climate  into  this  cave,  is  • 
more  improbable  than  any  hypothesis  we  have  mentioned; 
for  the  bones  alone  would  have  sunk  in  the  water ;  and 
had  they  been  covered  with  flesh,  the  larger  animals  not 
only  could  not  have  entered,  but  if  so,  their  entire  skeletons 
would  have  still  remained.' 

li  is  therefore  reasonable  to  conclude,  that  these  animals 
lived  and  died  in  the  country  where  their  bones  are  found ; 
nor  is  there  any  one  circumstance  which  can  be  employ- 
ed as  an  argument  against  such  a  belief,  except  the  coldness 
of  the  climate  at  the  present  day. 

The  only  climates  in  which  the  elephant,  the  rhinoceros, 
the  hippopotamus  and  hyena  are  now  found,  are  among 
tte  hottest  on  the  earth ;  and  it  is  said,  the  only  country 
which  all  these  four  animals  inhabit  together,  is  Southern 
Africa.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
these  four  animals  live  and  die  together,  as  they  formerly 
did  in  England. 

"  To  the  question,"  says  Prof.  Buckland,  "  which  here 
so  naturally  presents  itself,  as  to  what  might  have  been  the 
climate  of  the  northern  hemisphere  when  peopled  with 
genera  of  animals,  which  are  now  confined  to  the  warmer 
regions  of  the  earth,  it  is  not  essential  to  the  point  before 
me  to  find  a  solution ;  my  object  is  to  establish  the  fact, 
that  these  animals  lived  and  died  in  the  regions  where 
their  remains  are  found,  and  were  not  drifted  thither  by 
the  diluvial  waters  from  other  latitudes.  The  state  of  the 


232  CHANGE    OF    CLIMATE. 

climate  in  which  these  extinct  species  may  have  lived, 
antecedently  to  the  great  inundation  by  which  they  were 
extirpated,  is  a  distinct  matter  of  inquiry,  and  on  which 
the  highest  authorities  are  not  agreed." 

Cuvier  is  of  the  opinion,  that  many  of  the  extinct  fossil 
animals  were  of  a  different  species  from  those  now  in  ex- 
istence, and  therefore  the  inference  may  he  drawn,  that 
some  species  of  the  same  genera  might  have  heen  fitted  for 
a  cold,  while  others  could  live  only  in  a  warm  climate. 

Thus  the  fox  is  found,  both  in  the  coldest,  and  the  hot- 
test regions ;  and  the  Newfoundland  dog  is  so  protected 
by  his  coat,  as  to  endure  the  cold  of  an  arctic  winter, 
while  the  naked  African  species  would  perish  in  a  moder- 
ate climate. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  contended  that  the  re- 
mains of  many  animals  are  found  in  strata  in  cold  regions, 
which  are  not  liable  to  any  such  variations,  and  whic'a 
from  their  nature,  or  structure,  are  known  to  live  only  in 
hot  climates ;  such  are  the  crocodiles  and  some  species  of 
the  tortoise. 

But  the  want  of  vegetation  in  cold  climates,  is  an  insu- 
perable objection  to  the  hypothesis,  that  such  animals  as 
the  elephant,  rhinoceros  and  hippopotamus,  could  have 
been  maintained  during  the  winter  season  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, let  their  natural  clothing  be  supposed  ever  so  warm. 
And  besides,  the  bones  of  these  animals,  and  especially 
those  of  the  elephant,  are  nowhere  found  in  such  abun- 
dance, as  in  Siberia,  one  of  the  most  inhospitable  climates 
on  the  earth,  and  in  which  country,  at  the  present  day, 
there  is  hardly  sufficient  vegetation  to  maintain  a  few  ele- 
phants, even  during  the  few  months  of  summer ;  and 
where  that  most  hardy  of  all  quadrupeds,  the  rein-deer, 
can  with  difficulty  maintain  itself  through  the  rigors  of 
an  eight  months'  winter.  At  present,  the  elephant  and 
rhinoceros,  except  through  the  tyranny  of  man,  are  never 
found  out  of  a  country  perpetually  verdant. 

With  respect  to  the  supposition  which  has  been  offered, 
that  these  animals  might  have  migrated  with  the  seasons, 
and  thus  enjoyed  the  luxury  of  a  constant  vegetation,  it  is 
plain  that  the  present  geographical  situation  of  England, 
would  invalidate  any  such  hypothesis,  unless  it  can  be 
shown  that  these  animals  found  a  warmer  country  by 
crossing  the  straits  of  Dover,  a  distance  of  more  than 
twenty  miles,  by  water.  This,  so  far  as  regards  the  rhi- 


CHANGE    OF    CLIMATE.  233 

noceros,  tiger  and  hyena,  is  clearly  impossible,  and  it  is 
well  known  that  the  hippopotamus  not  only  lives  exclu- 
sively in  fresh  water,  but  that  its  unwieldy  bulk  prevents 
it  from  taking  long  and  rapid  journeys. 

Thus  the  fact  which  geology  has  brought  to  light,  with 
respect  to  certain  portions  of  the  animal,  as  well  as  the 
vegetable,  kingdom,  appear  very  clearly  to  concur  in  pro- 
ving, that  the  climate  of  Europe  was  once,  at  least  as  ar- 
dent as  the  hottest  parts  of  Africa  are  at  this  day ;  and  that 
there  was  a  time,  when  Siberia  was  clothed  with  a  suffi- 
ciency of  vegetation  to  support  herds  of  elephants  during 
the  whole  year. 

Causes  which  have  produced  a  change  of  climate.  With 
respect  to  the  cause,  or  causes  which  have  effected  so  great 
a  change  in  the  temperature  of  the  earth's  surface,  there 
are  a  great  variety  of  opinions. 

Burnet,  as  stated  in  the  abstract  we  have  given  of  his 
theory,  accounted  for  this  change  by  supposing  that  the 
earth's  axis  took  a  new  and  different  position  at  the  time 
of  Noah's  flood ;  but  astronomy  has  shown  the  improba- 
bility of  any  such  change  in  position. 

Most  writers  who  admit  a  deterioration  of  climate,  sup- 
pose with  Burnet,  that  the  change  was  sudden,  and  that  it 
took  place  about  the  period  of  the  deluge.  Some,  how- 
ever, and  among  them  Mr.  Lyell,  believe  it  to  have  been 
gradual,  occupying  thousands  of  years,  and  to  have  been 
caused  by  the  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the  rel- 
ative positions  of  the  sea  and  land.  But  in  the  first  place, 
no  such  changes  as  this  author  supposes  are  proved  to 
have  happened  with  respect  to  the  sea  and  land ;  nor  se- 
cond, had  such  changes  been  proved,  is  it  at  all  probable, 
such  local  causes  could  have  been  adequate  to  effect  a 
change  so  material  and  universal. 

Other  theorists,  who  maintain  the  deterioration  to  have 
been  gradual,  think  that  the  most  reasonable  mode  of  ac- 
counting for  it,  is  to  suppose  that  the  earth  was  created  in 
the  state  of  a  fused  mass,  and  that  it  has  been  cooling  ever 
since. 

Sir  John  F.  W.  Herschel  has  recently  made  some  cal- 
culations and  inquiries,  with  the  view  of  ascertaining 
whether  there  existed  any  astronomical  causes,  which 
might  account  for  the  difference  between  the  present  and 
ancient  heat  of  the  earth's  surface  "  Geometers,"  he  says, 
20* 


234  CHANGE    OF    CLIMATE. 

"have  demonstrated  the  absolute  invariability  of  the  mean 
distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun ;  whence  it  would  at 
first  seem  to  follow,  that  the  mean  annual  supply  of  light 
and  heat  derived  from  that  luminary  would  be  alike  inva- 
riable; but  a  closer  consideration  of  the  subject  will  show, 
that  this  would  not  be  a  legitimate  conclusion;  but  that 
on  the  contrary,  the  mean  amount  of  solar  radiation  is  de- 
pendent on  the  eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit,  and  there- 
fore liable  to  variations. 

"  Now  the  eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit,"  he  con- 
tinues, "  is  actually  diminishing,  and  has  been  so  for  ages 
beyond  the  records  of  history.  In  consequence,  the  ellip- 
sis is  in  a  state  of  approach  to  a  circle,  and  the  annual 
average  of  solar  heat  radiated  to  the  earth  is  actually  on  the 
decrease.  But  whether  this  diminution  of  radiated  heat  is 
sufficient  to  account  for  the  refrigeration  of  climate,  which 
geological  facts  appear  to  prove,  is  a  question  which  has 
not  been  decided." 

Allowing  that  the  earth's  orbit  should  become  a  perfect 
circle,  we  are  at  a  loss  to  see  how  the  mean  annual  radia- 
tion should  thereby  be  diminished.  It  is  the  opinion  of 
M.  Arago,  that  the  mean  amount  of  solar  radiation  can 
never  be  materially  affected  by  the  irregularities  of  the 
earth's  annual  motion. 

It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  we  cannot  look  to  as- 
tronomy with  much  confidence,  for  a  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem in  question. 

A  recent  and  highly  respectable  author,  Dr.  Ure,  of 
Glasgow,  believes  that  the  original  heat  of  the  earth  was 
dissipated  in  consequence  of  the  evaporation  of  the  waters 
of  the  deluge. 

The  cooling  influence  of  evaporation,  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances, is  undoubtedly  very  great,  and  most  probably 
in  many  instances,  produces  effects  which  are  attributed 
to  other  causes.  In  India,  ice  is  produced  by  the  evapora- 
tion of  water  in  the  open  air.  It  is  said  that  under  cer- 
tain circumstances,  by  the  spontaneous  evaporation  of  one 
part  of  water  from  the  surface  of  thirty-two  parts,  at  the 
temperature  of  62°,  the  remaining  thirty-one  parts  will 
be  rendered  nearly  ice  cold,  and  by  the  evaporation  of 
four  parts  more,  the  remaining  twenty-seven  will  become 
ice. 

The  effects  of  evaporation,  together  with  the  absence  of 
a  large  heating  surface,  is  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  tern- 


JR.  - 

CHANGE  OF  CLIMATE.  235 

perate  climate  of  St.  Helena.  This  island,  though  less 
than  eighteen  degrees  from  the  equator,  and  on  a  parallel 
with  the  burning  plains  of  continental  Africa,  enjoys  one 
of  the  most  comfortable  and  salubrious  climates  on  the 
earth.  At  Jamestown,  the  thermometer,  in  the  warmest 
season,  seldom  rises  above  80°.  In  the  country,  the  cli- 
mate is  still  more  mild,  the  thermometer,  in  some  seasons, 
never  rising  higher  than  72°.  At  Jamestown,  the  average 
temperature  during  the  year  is  from  66°  to  78°,  the  heat 
at  this  place,  being  concentrated  by  the  high  rocks  which 
rise  above  the  town.  At  Plantation  house,  the  average 
heat  is  only  from  61°  to  73°,  and  at  Longwood,  the  last 
residence  of  Napoleon,  from  56°  to  68°. 

The  island  of  Sumatra,  though  directly  under  the  equi- 
nox, presents  a  similar  exemption  from  the  excessive 
heats  with  which  the  interior  of  continents,  situated  on 
the  same  parallel,  are  oppressed.  The  heat,  at  this  isl- 
and, seldom  rises  higher  than  85°,  at  any  season ;  while  at 
Bengal,  which  is  situated  in  22°  north  latitude,  it  is  often 
above  100°. 

It  is  at  a  distance  from  the  sea,  and  where  the  surface  is 
dry,  that  the  greatest  accumulation  of  heat  takes  place. 
Mungo  Park  relates  that  in  some  districts  in  Africa,  the 
ground  became  so  hot  by  the  action  of  the  sun,  that  even 
the  negroes,  though  accustomed  to  that  ardent  climate, 
could  not  bear  to  touch  it  with  their  naked  feet ;  and  that 
he  could  not  hold  forth  his  hand  against  a  current  of  air 
which  entered  the  crevices  of  his  hut,  without  feeling  acute 
pain  from  its  scorching  effects. 

Dr.  Ure  supposes  that  a  portion  of  the  ante-diluvian 
land  is  now  covered  by  the  ocean,  and  that  the  heating 
surface,  or  dry  land  on  the  earth,  was  twice  as  extensive 
before  the  deluge  as  it  is  now,  and,  consequently,  as  a 
whole,  that  its  heating  effects  were  doubled. 

We  cannot  follow  Dr.  Ure  through  the  detail  of  facts 
and  arguments  which  he  has  brought  forward  on  this 
subject ;  but  after  many  additional  statements  to  those  we 
have  given,  he  concludes,  "  that  the  facts  and  observations 
just  detailed,  seem  adequate  to  prove  that  the  events  of 
the  deluge  involved  such  a  change  in  the  terraqueous  con- 
stitution, as  rendered  the  surface  of  the  globe  much  cold- 
er and  moister  than  it  had  previously  been." — Geology, 
p.  491. 

The  great  and  sudden  fall  of  temperature,  which  the 


236  CHANGE  OF  CLIMATE. 

earth  suffered  at  a  former  time,  and  which  is  supposed  to 
have  taken  place  about  the  period  of  the  deluge,  is  indi- 
cated by  the  situation  and  number  of  fossil  bones,  belong- 
ing to  species  known  to  inhabit  hot  climates,  found  in 
northern  latitudes. 

"The  almost  incredible  number  of  bones  of  fossil  ele- 
phants," says  Dr.  Ure,  "found  in  northern  Siberia,  which 
betray  no  marks  of  having  been  rolled  or  transported 
from  a  distance,  attest  the  existence  on  its  plains  of  huge 
herbiverous  animals  at  that  distant  epoch.  These  demon- 
strate that  a  vigorous  vegetation  clothed  countries  now 
covered  with  frost  a  great  part  of  the  year,  where,  even 
in  summer,  sterilizing  cold  and  humidity  perpetually 
reign,  and  where,  at  present,  the  reindeer  can  hardly 
pick  up  from  beneath  the  snow  its  scanty  mouthful  of 
moss." 

Not  only  the  bones  of  elephants,  but  those  of  the  rhino- 
ceros, the  mastodon,  and  hippopotamus,  are  found  in  Si- 
beria. All  these  animals  living  on  vegetables,  and,  from 
their  sizes,  requiring  large  quantities  for  their  sustenance, 
it  would  seem  impossible,  as  we  have  before  stated,  that  in 
the  present  state  of  the  climate,  there  should  have  grown  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  nourishment  for  the  support  of  these 
animals. 

That  these  animals  died  where  they  had  lived,  and  where 
their  remains  are  now  found,  is  proved  by  the  circum- 
stances that  their  skeletons  are  entire,  and  that  their  bones 
show  no  scratches,  or  other  marks  of  transportation  or  fric- 
tion. That  these  bones  have  not  lain  for  a  long  period  in 
a  hot  climate,  is  proved  by  their  state  of  preservation ; 
many  of  the  elephants'  tusks  being  perfectly  sound,  and 
making  the  best  of  ivory,  for  which  purpose  vast  num- 
bers have  been  dug  up  and  sold.  The  change  of  climate 
must  therefore  have  taken  place  at  the  deaths  of  these  ani- 
mals, or  soon  after. 

That  these  animals  died  suddenly,  and  remained  in  a 
cold  climate  after  death,  at  least  some  of  them,  is  proved 
by  the  circumstance,  that  the  body  of  an  elephant  was 
found  on  the  bank  of  the  river  Lena,  in  1803.  It  was 
frozen  in  the  ice,  a  large  proportion  of  the  flesh  being  still 
preserved,  and  serving  as  food  for  the  white  bears  and 
dogs.  Now,  since  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  this 
animal  could  have  lived  in  a  cold  climate,  and  as  there  is 


CHANGE    OF    CLIMATE.  237 

every  reason  to  suppose  that  he  died  where  his  remains 
were  found,  perhaps  the  nature  of  such  a  case  could  not 
admit  of  stronger  evidence,  that  there  happened  a  great 
aud  sudden  change  from  heat  to  cold  in  that  country,  and 
that  this  took  place  at  the  time  when  this  animal  perished, 
or  soon  after. 

If  it  is  certain,  that  this  animal  could  not  have  lived  in 
a  cold  climate,  and  equally  so  that  his  hody  could  not  have 
been  preserved  more  than  a  few  days  in  a  hot  one,  the  con- 
clusion is  inevitable,  that  the  climate  must  have  changed 
at  the  time  of  his  death,  or  immediately  afterwards. 

The  opinion  of  Baron  Cuvier,  entirely  coincides  with 
what  here  seems  to  be  proved.  "  Every  hypothesis,"  says 
he,  "  of  a  gradual  cooling  of  the  earth,  or  a  slow  varia- 
tion, in  either  the  inclination  or  position  of  the  axis  of  the 
globe  is  inadmissible." 

There  are  many  reasons  for  believing  that  the  animals 
whose  remains  are  thus  found,  were  destroyed  at  the  time 
of  the  general  deluge,  and  also  that  their  bodies  were  not 
transported  to  any  considerable  distance  by  that  catastro- 
phe. There  bones  are  found  on  plains  and  the  sides  of 
valleys,  where  we  should  suppose  their  bodies  would  have 
been  left  by  the  retiring  waters,  and  in  many  instances  they 
have  been  found  covered  by  sand  or  gravel,  such  as  are 
considered  diluvial  deposites,  and  under  such  circumstan- 
ces, as  to  make  it  improbable  that  any  ordinary  flood 
would  have  produced  similar  effects. 

On  reviewing  the  facts  and  circumstances  above  stated, 
it  is  thought  that  we  may  fairly  come  to  the  following 
conclusions  : 

First,  That  the  climate  of  Siberia  was  once  similar  to 
that  of  the  tropics  of  the  present  day. 

Second,  That  at  the  epoch  of  the  deluge,  the  climate  of 
Siberia  suffered  a  sudden  and  material  change  in  its  tem- 
perature, and  that  it  then  became  similar  to  what  it  is 
now. 

Third,  That  the  deluge  was  the  most  probable  cause 
of  the  destruction  of  several  ancient  races  of  quadrupeds, 
which  inhabited  that  country,  anterior  to  the  flood,  and 
among  which,  were  the  elephant  and  rhinoceros,  the 
bones  of  which  still  exist  there.  And, 

Fourth,  That  the  most  probable  cause  of  the  sudden 
change  of  climate  in  Siberia,  and  of  the  decrease  of  the 
superficial  temperature  of  the  earth  generally,  was  the 


238  CHANGE    OF    CLIMATE. 

cold  produced  by  the  evaporation  of  the  waters  of  the 
deluge. 

Farther  remarks  on  Change  of  Climate.  Since  the 
former  edition  of  this  work,  considerable  light  has  been 
thrown  on  the  subject  of  organic  remains  as  connected 
with  "  change  of  climate,"  by  various  Avriters;  and  from 
which  it  appears  that  some  species  of  animals  belonging 
to  genera,  usually  considered  tropical,  have  been  found 
capable  of  sustaining  much  higher  latitudes  than  was  be- 
fore supposed. 

It  will  be  remembered,  that  in  nearly  every  instance, 
the  fossil  bones  of  animals  belonging  to  genera  now  living, 
were  of  species  unknown  to  naturalists  of  the  present  day. 
It  may  therefore  be  inferred,  that  if  it  can  be  shown  that 
there  are  elephants  and  tigers  now  living  in  cold  latitudes, 
the  fossil  bones  of  these  animals,  found  in  Siberia  and 
other  northern  regions,  might  have  belonged  to  such  spe- 
cies, and  thus  that  the  situation  of  these  bones  may  be 
accounted  for,  without  so  great  a  change  of  climate  as  has 
heretofore  be*en  supposed. 

It  has  recently  been  proved,  beyond  all  doubt,  that  a 
species  of  tiger  identical  with  that  of  Bengal,  is  common 
in  the  vicinity  of  lake  Aral,  in  Independent  Tartary,  in 
latitude  45°  north,  and  also,  that  this  animal  is  often  seen 
in  Siberia  as  high  as  latitude  52°.  Humboldt,  who  states 
these  facts,  remarks,  that  the  part  of  Asia  now  inhabited 
by  this  species  of  tiger,  is  separated  from  the  Himmaleb 
by  two  great  chains  of  mountains,  each  covered  by  per- 
petual snow.  These  mountains  are  the  Kuenlun,  in 
latitude  35°,  and  the  Mouztagh,  in  latitude  42°.  So  that  if 
is  impossible  that  these  animals  should  merely  have  made 
excursions  from  India,  and  penetrated  during  the  summer 
to  48°  and  53°  of  latitude,  where  they  are  found.  In 
1828,  a  tiger  was  killed  on  the  bank  of  the  Lena,  in  Asiatic 
Russia,  in  latitude  about  52°,  and  in  a  climate  colder  than 
that  of  Petersburg,  or  Stockholm.  We  are  not  informed 
whether  this  tiger  was  covered  with  fur  and  long  hair,  or 
not,  but  it  is  stated,  in  the  Ehrenberg  Journal  of  Natural 
Sciences,  as  quoted  by  Mr.  Lyell,  that  a  new  species  of 
panther  (Felis  irbis)  has  been  discovered  with  long  hair, 
in  Siberia,  evidently  inhabiting,  like  the  tiger,  a  region 
north  of  the  Celestial  Mountains,  which  are  in  latitude 
42°. 


CHANGE    OF    CLIMATE.  239 

In  1772,  Professor  Pallas  obtained  from  the  banks  of 
the  Wiljui,  a  tributary  of  the  Lena,  the  remains  of  a  rhi- 
noceros, (R.  tickorinus,)  taken  from  the  sand,  where  it 
must  have  remained  frozen  for  ages.  This  carcass  re- 
sembled a  mummy,  but  emitted  a  smell  like  that  of  decay- 
ing, or  putrefying  flesh.  The  skin  was  covered  with  thick 
hair,  which  was  of  great  length  about  the  feet. 

The  elephant  found  preserved  in  ice  in  latitude  70°,  an 
account  of  which  will  be  found  among  that  of  other  fossil 
quadrupeds  in  this  work,  was  also  covered  with  a  warm 
coat,  consisting  of  fur  and  hair.  This  animal,  indeed, 
seems  to  have  been  as  well  protected  from  the  cold,  as  is 
the  Musk  Ox,  of  the  present  day. 

Bishop  Heber,  in  his  "  Narrative  of  a  Journey  through 
the  Upper  Provinces  of  India,"  informs  us  that  in  the 
range  of  the  lower  Himmaleh  mountains,  in  latitude  be- 
tween 29°  and  30°,  he  saw  an  Indian  elephant  of  small 
size,  covered  with  shaggy  hair. 

Mr.  Everest  says,  (Journal  of  Asiatic  Society,)  that  the 
wild  elephant  is  found  in  the  mountains  north  of  Bengal, 
at  the  elevation  of  4000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
and  in  31°  north  latitude.  He  also  states  that  he  had 
heard  of  a  solitary  instance  of  an  elephant  covered  with 
shaggy  hair  at  Delhi,  but  that  he  had  never  himself  seen 
such  a  phenomenon.  It  would  therefore  seem  that  the 
individual  seen  by  Bishop  Heber  must  have  been  of  an 
exceedingly  rare  species,  or  variety  ;  since  Mr.  Everest 
being  a  resident  in  India,  and  a  writer  on  the  subject, 
would  otherwise  have  obtained  further  information  con- 
cerning it.  Whatever  the  climate  of  Russia  and  Siberia 
might  once  have  been,  it  is  certain  from  the  accounts  of 
writers,  that  it  was  once  inhabited  by  such  vast  herds  of 
elephants,  as  to  leave  no  parallel  of  the  existence  of  such 
numbers  anywhere  at  the  present  day.  Tilesius  states, 
that  in  northern  Russia  fossil  tusks  are  so  numerous,  as  in 
all  probability  to  excel  in  that  country  alone,  all  the  living 
elephants  now  on  the  earth.  These  tusks  are  many  of 
them  entirely  sound,  and  are  at  the  present  day,  collected 
and  sold  by  thousands  for  ivory. 

Now  admitting  that  these  animals  were  covered  with 
hair,  so  as  to  protect  them  from  the  consequences  of  an 
arctic  climate,  still,  as  formerly  stated,  we  are  met  with 
the  difficulty  of  accounting  for  the  subsistence  of  such 
herds  of  enormous  animals.  On  this  point,  Dr.  Fleming 


240  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

remarks,  "  that  the  kind  of  food  which  the  existing  species 
of  elephant  prefers,  will  not  enable  us  to  determine,  or 
even  to  offer  a  probable  conjecture  concerning  that  of  the 
extinct  species.  No  one  acquainted  with  the  gramineous 
character  of  the  food  of  our  fallow-deer,  stag,  or  roe,  would 
have  assigned  a  lichen  to  the  reindeer." 

But  as  all  agree  that  the  whole  genera  of  elephants  lived 
on  vegetable  food,  the  difficulty  scarcely  subsides  by  sup- 
posing the  ancient  species  to  have  eaten  a  different  kind 
from  those  still  existing,  since  all  the  vegetation  of  what- 
ever kind  now  growing  in  Siberia,  would  not  probably, 
have  supported  one  in  a  hundred  of  the  animals  whose 
bones  are  found  there. 

With  respect  to  the  remains  of  animals  found  in  very 
high  northern  latitudes,  as  that  of  the  elephant  on  the  Lena 
in  latitude  of  70°,  it  is  most  probable  that  at  least  some, 
and  perhaps  all  of  them  were  conveyed  there  by  the  cur- 
rents of  overflowing  rivers. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  rivers  of  Northern 
Russia  and  Siberia  run  towards  the  north,  and  that  there- 
fore the  snow  in  the  regions  of  their  head  waters  and 
upper  courses,  being  melted  by  the  warmth  of  spring, 
while  hundreds  of  miles  from  their  mouths,  remain  lock- 
ed in  ice,  these  rivers  are  every  season  subject  to  mighty 
floods,  not  only  because  their  channels  are  thus  nearly 
obliterated,  but  because  the  narrow  valleys  are  blocked 
up  by  the  descending  ice. 

The  Lena  and  Yenisei,  both  Siberian  rivers,  after  run- 
ning at  least  2000  miles  discharge  themselves  into  the 
Frozen  Ocean,  and  therefore  might  transport  the  frozen 
carcass  of  an  animal  this  distance,  without  its  being  even 
softened  by  the  warmth  of  spring. 

On  reviewing  the  facts  and  circumstances  above  stated, 
although  it  may  not  be  considered  necessary  to  suppose 
so  great  a  change  in  the  climate  of  Siberia,  as  was  for- 
merly believed,  in  order  to  account  for  the  organic  phe- 
nomena existing  in  that  country,  still  there  remain  facts 
in  abundance,  which  we  think  cannot  be  reconciled  with 
any  theory,  but  that  of  a  great  change  of  climate. 


ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

Organic  Remains,  include,  generally,  all  such  organ- 


DIVISION   OF  FOSSILS.  241 

ized  substances  as  are  found  buried  in  the  earth,  as  those 
of  plants,  fish,  shells,  and  the  bones  of  quadrupeds.  The 
term  Fossil  is  often  used  synonymously  with  organic,  and 
although  the  former  word  strictly  signifies  any  thing  dug 
out  of  the  earth,  it  is  often  applied  to  the  petrified  remains 
of  plants,  and  other  organized  bodies  found  in  strata. 

"  Of  all  the  appearances  which  the  earth  presents," 
says  Dr.  Macculloch,  "nothing  has  excited  more  atten- 
tion than  the  existence  of  animal  bodies  in  strata;  while 
the  air  of  mystery  which  attended  them  stimulated  curi- 
osity, and  may  be  said  to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  geo- 
logical science.  If  the  presence  of  animals  once  sub- 
marine, in  rocks,  and  on  lofty  mountains,  was  a  cause  of 
wonder,  and  a  source  of  theories,  so  did  the  discovery  of 
the  bones  of  large  animals,  lead  to  the  belief  of  pre-exist- 
ing races  of  giants,  while  in  both  cases,  philosophy,  with 
history,  sacred  and  profane,  were  perverted  to  find  explana- 
tions. 

"  The  increase  of  knowledge  has  given  a  very  different 
complexion  to  this  subject,  and  a  more  rational  direction  to 
the  pursuit.  Yet  the  geologist  seems  in  danger  of  forget- 
ting that  it  is  but  one  part  of  his  science.  Its  details  be- 
long to  zoology  and  botany;  and  he  loses  sight  of  his  main 
object,  when  he  pursues  these  minutiae  to  the  neglect  of 
their  more  interesting  connexions  with  the  history  of  the 
globe.  Still  more  deeply  does  he  err,  when  he  supposes 
that  a  theory  of  the  earth  can  be  founded  on  what  in- 
volves so  small  a  portion  of  its  structure  and  history.  It 
is,  doubtless,  essential  to  know  these  objects;  as  to  ar- 
range and  name  them,  is  the  grammar  of  this  depart- 
ment. But  it  is  unfortunately  true,  that,  whether  the  con- 
templation of  minutiae  disables  the  mind  for  wider  views, 
or  that  only  a  minute  mind  can  be  engrossed  by  such 
things,  the  power  of  profiting  by  collections  and  their  study, 
diminishes  in  proportion  to  their  extent  and  the  activity  of 
collectors,  whether  it  be  in  natural  history  or  in  books." — • 
Vol.  i.  406. 


DIVISION  OF  FOSSILS. 


:    :1-        ,v.qi:  <••,• 

Fossils  may  be  divided  into  marine  and  terrestrial  ;  the 
first  including  all  such  as  belong  to  the  sea,  and  the  second, 
21 


242  INDICATION'S  OF  VIOLENT  CHANGES. 

such  as  inhabit  the  earth.  The  terrestrial  may  be  again 
divided  into  aquatic  and  terrene,  since  not  the  earth  only, 
but  its  waters  are  inhabited  by  various  tribes,  familiarly 
known  under  the  titles  of  fresh  water  fish,  shells,  &c.  As 
organic  bodies,  fossil  remains  are  also  divided  in  animals 
and  vegetables.  The  former  including  all  such  as  had  ani- 
mal life,  as  quadrupeds,  fish,  and  shells ;  the  latter,  plants 
of  every  kind  found  in  the  fossil  state. 

Indications  of  Violent  Changes.  That  the  earth  on 
which  we  live  has  suffered  violent  and  extensive  changes, 
is  almost  everywhere  indicated  by  its  external  appearance ; 
and  when  we  come  to  examine  the  interior  of  its  crust,  this 
idea  is  confirmed  in  the  most  positive  manner,  by  the  ob- 
vious fact  that  its  rocks  have  been  fractured,  and  its  strata 
dislocated.  At  what  period  or  periods.,  these  mighty  chan- 
ges took  place,  we  have  no  means  of  knowing ;  but  that 
its  surface  has  been  materially  altered  since  the  formation 
of  the  more  recent  rocks,  and  subsequently  to  the  creation 
of  organized  beings,  is  clearly  proved  by  their  remains  now 
preserved  in  its  strata. 

In  some  instances,  very  extraordinary  collections  of 
bones,  remains  of  fish,  vegetables,  and  other  organic  bo- 
dies, have  been  found  in  situations,  and  under  circum- 
stances, which,  though  indicative  of  violent  revolutions, 
place  all  suppositions  with  respect  to  their  origin  at  de- 
fiance. 

Thus,  in  the  valley  of  the  Thames,  in  England,  at  a 
certain  locality,  in  Essex,  there  is  an  alluvial  deposite, 
resting  on  chalk.  "  This,"  says  Mr.  Brande,  "  contains 
such  a  remarkable  assemblage  of  organic  remains,  some 
of  vegetable,  and  others  of  animal  origin,  as  almost  to 
baffle  all  conjecture  as  to  whence  they  came,  and  under 
what  circumstances  they  were  brought  together.  The 
remains  of  sea  animals  are  blended  with  those  of  the 
land,  quadrupeds  with  fish,  and  fresh  water  fish  with  those 
peculiar  to  the  ocean.  Animals  of  the  land,  the  air,  and 
the  water,  are  assembled  together  in  most  unaccountable 
incongruity ;  fruits  and  leaves,  hazel  nuts  and  pine  cones, 
are  mixed  with  shark's  teeth,  crab's  claws,  and  oyster 
shells." 

In  the  island  of  Sheppy,  there  exists  a  similar  assem- 
blage of  various  species  of  shells,  mixed  with  fossil  fruits. 
Of  the  latter,  500  varieties  have  been  found.  At  Brent 


FOSSIL  QUADRUPEDS.  243 

ford,  phenomena  of  the  same  kind,  and  not  less  extraor- 
dinary, have  been  discovered.  Here  exists  a  collection  of 
sea  shells,  shark's  teeth,  bones  of  the  elephant,  hippopota- 
mus, ox,  and  deer,  together  with  fresh  water  shells ;  "  the 
whole,"  says  Mr.  Brande,  "  calculated  to  impress  us  with 
the  idea  of  the  destruction  of  a  vast  menagerie,  in  which 
animals  of  all  denominations,  and  from  all  quarters  of  the 
world,  had  been  associated." 


FOSSIL  QUADRUPEDS. 

In  their  descriptions  of  fossil  remains,  authors  have 
more  generally  commenced  with  those  belonging  to  the 
lowest  strata,  or  those  which,  in  the  order  of  time,  as  shown 
by  the  strata,  were  first  called  into  existence,  such  as  ex- 
tinct species  of  plants,  shells,  &c.  But  as  these  are  not 
easily  understood,  and  as  there  is  no  advantage  to  the 
learner  in  such  an  arrangement,  we  have  thought  proper 
to  commence  with  the  more  perfect  animals. 

The  number  of  quadrupeds,  the  classes  and  orders  of 
which  have  been  determined  by  Cuvier,  solely  by  an 
examination  of  their  bones,  amount  to  150.  Of  these, 
ninety  species  were  before  entirely  unknown  to  natural- 
ists, and  are,  therefore,  supposed  not  to  inhabit  the  earth  at 
the  present  time,  their  entire  races  having  perished  at  the 
period  when  their  bones,  found  in  the  most  recent  strata, 
were  there  buried.  Ten  or  twelve  of  the  others'  so  nearly 
resemble  known  species,  that  no  doubt  remains  of  their 
identity.  Many  of  those  which  remain,  present  kindred 
features  with  known  species,  but  the  comparisons  have  not 
been  made  with  sufficient  care  to  remove  all  doubt,  and, 
therefore,  it  is  still  uncertain  whether  their  species  exist 
or  not. 

Of  the  ninety  unknown  species,  about  thirty  belong  to 
genera  still  living,  and  the  remaining  sixty  to  genera  en- 
tirely new. 

With  respect  to  the  classes  and  orders  to  which  these 
animals  belonged,  about  one-fourth  of  the  150  species  were 
oviparous  (egg  laying)  quadrupeds,  as  the  alligator,  lizard, 
and  tortoise.  The  remaining  were  mammiferous,  or  milk- 
giving  animals,  as  the  elephant  and  mastodon.  Of  the 
latter,  more  than  one-half  were  non-ruminant,  hoofed  quad- 
rupeds, as  the  horse  and  tapir. 


244  FOSSIL  QUADRUPEDS. 

From  these  facts  thus  developed,  concerning  the  ani- 
mals of  the  primitive,  or  ante-diluvian  world,  it  might 
perhaps  be  supposed  that  some  theory  could  be  formed 
with  respect  to  the  proportions  of  the  different  genera, 
which  then  inhabited  the  earth,  and  by  a  comparison  of 
these  with  the  genera  now  existing,  we  should  be  enabled 
%  to  see  the  difference.  But  it  would  be  premature  to  form 
any  hypothesis  on  this  subject  at  present,  since  we  know 
not  but  there  are  hundreds  of  extinct  species  still  undis- 
covered. 

Cuvier  has  proved,  as  we  shall  see  directly,  that  the 
extinct  species  of  quadrupeds  are  not  varieties  of  those 
now  in  existence,  but  that  there  exist  distinct  specific 
differences  between  them.  "  A  species,"  says  he,  "com- 
prises all  the  individuals  which  descend  from  one  another, 
or  from  common  parents,  and  those  which  resemble  each 
other,  as  much  as  they  resemble  themselves."  Hence 
the  varieties  of  a  species  are  the  result  merely  of  such 
changes  as  take  place  in  the  color,  size,  and  fineness  of 
the  fur  of  animals,  and  which  may  be  caused  by  a  differ- 
ence of  climate,  of  food,  or  the  domestication  of  the  spe- 
cies ;  these  varieties  may  therefore  produce  the  exact  like- 
nesses of  their  parents.  For  example,  the  dog  is  a  ge- 
nus ;  the  pointer  is  one  species,  and  the  grayhound  is  an- 
other. Now,  every  one  who  is  conversant  with  dogs, 
knows  that  pointers  may  differ  from  each  other  in  color, 
size,  and  shape,  and  even  from  the  same  parents  it  is  sel- 
dom that  two  precisely  similar  can  be  found.  These  are 
varieties  of  the  pointer,  but  the  species  are  not  changed, 
for  their  instincts,  habits,  and  general  appearance  are  the 
same  with  those  of  their  parents.  The  same  variations 
may  be  observed  in  the  grayhound,  and,  indeed,  all  other 
species  of  dogs.  But  if  the  races  are  kept  distinct,  there 
are  no  circumstances  of  climate,  or  keeping,  that  will 
change  the  grayhound  into  the  pointer,  or  the  pointer  into 
the  grayhound.  The  species  are  therefore  entirely  distinct 
and  unchangeable. 

"The  fox  and  the  wolf,"  says  Cuvier,  "inhabit  every 
country  from  the  icy  to  the  torrid  zone ;  they  experience 
in  this  immense  interval  every  change  of  climate  and 
condition,  and  yet  the  species  have  suffered  no  other 
change,  than  a  slight  variation  in  the  beauty  of  their  fur. 
The  same  accurate  observer  compared  the  sculls  of  foxes 
from  the  north  of  Europe  and  from  Egypt,  with  those  of 


FOSSIL    QUADRUPEDS.  245 

France,  but  found  no  appreciable  differences.  Hence 
we  learn  that  the  species  of  animals  are  not  changed  by 
time  and  circumstances,  as  some  have  thought  to  be  the 
case." 

Means  of  distinguishing  Fossil  Bones.  Before  pro- 
ceeding to  individual  fossil  species,  it  is  necessary  to  de- 
scribe the  method  by  which  naturalists  have  been  enabled, 
by  examining  their  petrified  bones,  to  distinguish  these 
unknown  animals  from  each  other,  and  from  those  now- 
living.  This  art,  or  science,  originated  with  the  acute 
and  laborious  Baron  Cuvier,  and  by  him  was  brought  to 
a  degree  of  perfection,  to  which  little  has  been  added  by 
others. 

"The  principle  on  which  this  discrimination  is  founded, 
is  the  peculiar,  and  perfect  organization  of  each  species, 
so  that  one  part  is  invariably,  and  exactly  adapted  to 
another,  and  is  indicated  by  it.  Each  animal  constitutes 
a  whole,  one  systematic  cycle,  whose  parts  are  in  mutual 
correspondence,  and  concur  to  the  same  definite  action,  by 
a  reciprocal  re-action.  None  of  these  parts  can  change 
without  a  symmetrical  change  in  the  others ;  and  hence 
each  taken  by  itself,  indicates  and  gives  form  to  all  the 
rest. 

Thus  if  the  organs  of  an  animal  are  so  constituted  as  to 
digest  only  raw  flesh,  its  jaws  must  be  constructed  for  de- 
vouring its  prev ;  its  claws  for  seizing  and  tearing  it ;  its 
teeth  for  cutting  and  dividing  it ;  the  entire  system  of  its 
organs  of  motion  for  pursuing  and  overtaking  it ;  its  or- 
gans of  sense  for  descrying  it  at  a  distance ;  and  even  its 
brain  must  be  qualified  for  exercising  the  instinct  of  self- 
concealment,  and  the  art  to  ensnare  its  victim.  Such  is 
the  general  condition  of  the  carnivorous  temperament; 
every  animal  endowed  with  which,  must  combine  them  all, 
for  otherwise  its  race  could  not  subsist. 

For  the  jaw  to  seize  its  prey  there  must  be  a  certain 
kind  of  articulation,  which  gives  prominence  to  the  cheeks, 
and  fits  the  bones  to  receive  the  insertion  of  strong  mus- 
cles, for  without  these  any  such  articulation  would  be  use- 
less. To  enable  the  animal  to  carry  off  its  prey,  there 
must  be  a  certain  degree  of  strength  in  the  muscles  of  the 
neck,  and  hence  results  a  determinate  form  in  the  verte- 
bras, and  the  hind  part  of  the  head,  to  which  these  mus- 
cles are  attached. 


246  FOSSIL    QUADRUPEDS. 

Whoever  will  compare  the  bones  of  a  cat  with  ihose  of 
a  rabbit,  will  see  how  these  parts  differ,  and  if  he  will 
study  the  subject,  he  will  soon  convince  himself,  why 
the  bones  of  the  rabbit,  independently  of  the  teeth,  could 
not  have  been  fitted  for  the  purpose  of  a  rapacious  an- 
imal. 

That  the  claws  may  seize  the  prey,  there  must  be  a  cer- 
tain mobility  in  the  talons,  and  a  certain  degree  of  strength 
in  the  toe  joints,  and  thence  there  must  result  a  corres- 
ponding distribution  of  muscles,  and  tendons,  so  that 
lightness  and  power  may  be  combined.  /The  shoulder 
bones  in  such  animals  must  have  great  firmness,  other- 
wise the  legs  will  not  be  fitted  for  the  uses  of  the  claws, 
and  this  firmness  of  bone  is  thus  prepared  to  receive  the 
insertion  of  strong  muscles,  by  which  the  required  power 
is  given. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  show  how  the  other  parts  of  a 
prowling  animal  are  adapted  to  each  other,  so  that  the 
whole  machinery  of  bones,  muscles,  joints  and  tendons, 
all  combine  to  the  accomplishment  of  the  same  end.  The 
parts  of  any  animal,  are  indeed  a  "collection  of  wonders," 
and  he  who  does  not  behold  in  them  the  traces  of  Infinite 
Wisdom  and  design,  must  either  want  understanding  or 
sight. 

"  In  a  word,"  says  Cuvier,  "  the  formation  of  the  tooth 
indicates  the  structure  of  the  jaw,  and  its  kind  of  articu- 
lation; the  structure  of  the  shoulder  bone,  shows  the  form 
of  the  feet,  just  as  the  equation  of  a  curve,  involves  all  its 
properties ;  and  as  by  assuming  each  property  separately 
as  the  base  of  a  particular  equation,  we  should  re-pro- 
duce both  the  ordinary  equation,  and  all  its  properties ;  so 
the  nails  and  shoulder  blade  indicate  the  articulation  of 
the  jaw;  the  thigh  bone,  and  the  other  bones,  taken  sepa- 
rately, give  the  form  of  the  tooth,  or  are  given  by  it  in 
their  turn. 

Since  the  mechanism  of  every  animal  involves  certain 
fixed  and  invariable  principles  and  proportions  which  be- 
long to  the  whole  race,  by  ascertaining  what  these  are, 
we  can  readily  distinguish  one  tribe  or  species  from  ano- 
ther, though  the  differences  may  be  ever  so  slight.  To 
the  most  common  observer,  the  entire  skeleton  of  a  horse 
would  be  distinguished  from  that  of  an  ox,  by  the  size  and 
proportions  of  the  whole;  and  by  comparing  the  thigh 
bones  of  the  two  animals  he  would  readily  distinguish 


FOSSIL    QUADRUPEDS.  247 

these,  and  thus  take  one  step  in  comparative  anatomy,  for 
now  he  would  be  able  to  distinguish  a  horse  from  an  ox, 
merely  by  inspecting  a  single  bone. 

It  is  plain,  from  this  example,  that  by  the  constant  ex- 
amination of  the  bones  of  different  classes,  genera,  and  spe- 
cies of  animals,  the  observer  might  attain  to  great  per- 
fection in  this  art,  so  that  .even  without  comparison,  he 
would  be  able  to  decide  in  an  instant,  whether  a  given 
bone  belonged  to  any  living  genera  of  animals  or  not,  and 
by  a  closer  care  and  comparison,  to  point  out  those  differ- 
ences which  distinguish  the  osteology  of  one  species  from 
that  of  another. 

Are  the  species  supposed  to  be  extinct,  varieties  of  living 
species  ?  This  question  has  already  been  noticed,  but  we 
would  be  more  particular  on  a  point  of  so  much  impor- 
tance in  geology.  Of  the  150  fossil  species,  about  ninety 
are  said  to  be  extinct :  that  is,  they  are  not  known  to  exisf 
in  the  living  state,  at  the  present  time.  Among  these  is 
the  mastodon,  or  mammoth,  the  bones  of  which  have  been 
found  in  many  places  in  this  country.  This  is  an  exam- 
ple of  an  extinct  species.  It  is  not  found  alive  in  any  part 
of  the  world,  nor  does  it  belong  to  any  species  of  animals 
known  to  exist.  If  such  an  animal  was  still  living,  even 
among  the  most  barbarous  tribes,  there  can  be  little 
doubt,  but  some  information  concerning  it,  would  have 
been  given,  at  least  to  one  among  those  individuals,  who, 
within  the  last  few  years,  have  explored  most  of  the  be- 
fore unknown  regions,  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  world. 
That  the  whole  race  of  mastodons  are  extinct,  therefore, 
there  can  be  no  doubt.  Nor  can  there  be  any  question 
that  this  animal  was  a  distinct  species  from  the  elephant, 
which  it  most  resembled.  This  is  proved  by  the  size  and 
form  of  its  bones,  and  especially  by  its  tusks  and  grinders, 
many  of  which  have  been  compared  with  those  of  the 
elephant  now  living,  and  the  specific  differences  pointed 
out. 

It  has  been  supposed  by  some  naturalists,  that  more  or 
less  of  the  unknown  fossil  species  might  still  exist  in  parts 
of  the  globe  which  have  not  yet  been  explored;  but  al- 
though it  may  be  possible  that  some  of  the  smaller  of 
these  animals  may  still  be  living,  there  is  little  probability 
that  any  of  the  larger  quadrupeds,  or  perhaps  amphibious 
animals  will  anywhere  be  found. 


243  FOSSIL    QUADRUPEDS. 

"  If,"  says  Baron  Cuvier,  "  we  examine  what  species  of 
quadrupeds  have  recently  been  found,  and  in  what  circum- 
stances they  have  been  discovered,  we  shall  see  that  there 
is  but  little  hope  of  ever  finding  those  that  we  have  only 
seen  as  fossils.  Islands,  of  moderate  extent,  situated  at  a 
distance  from  extensive  continents,  have  very  few  quad- 
rupeds, and  these  always  of  small  size.  When  they  have 
large  ones,  it  is  because  they  have  been  brought  from  else- 
where. Bouganville,  and  Cook,  found  only  dogs  and  hogs 
on  the  South  Sea  Islands,  and  the  largest  species  of  the 
West  Indies,  was  the  agouti,  (a  species  of  the  hare.)  In 
fact,  only  large  territories,  such  as  Asia,  Africa,  the  two 
Americas,  and  New  Holland,  have  large  quadrupeds,  and 
generally,  species  peculiar  to  themselves." 

If  there  remained  any  extensive  countries  to  discover, 
we  might  hope  to  find  new  species,  among  which  some 
might  be  found,  more  or  less  resembling  those  of  which 
the  bowels  of  the  earth  have  preserved  us  relics,  but  it  is 
sufficient  to  cast  a  glance  over  the  map  of  the  world,  and 
see  the  numerous  directions  in  which  navigators  have 
ploughed  the  ocean,  to  judge  that  there  cannot  be  any  un- 
discovered large  tract  of  country  still  remaining. 

The  ancients  were  acquainted  with  nearly  all  the  ani- 
mals now  known,  except  such  as  have  been  discovered  in 
America  and  New  Holland.  The  Greeks  were  acquaint- 
ed with  the  elephant,  and  the  double  and  single  horned 
rhinoceros,  and  both  these  animals  were  common  at  Rome. 
Heliogabalus  exhibited  the  hippopotamus,  and  the  giraffe 
or  cameleopard:  and  the  two  species  of  camel  were 
known  to  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Julius  Csesar.  The 
buffalo,  the  wild  ox,  the  ox  without  horns,  and  the  little  ox, 
no  larger  than  a  goat,  the  sheep  with  the  great  tail,  and 
the  great  sheep  of  India,  were  all  known  to  the  ancients, 
for  they  have  left  descriptions  of  them. 

The  Romans  exhibited  lions,  panthers,  and  tigers,  by 
the  hundred  ;  they  also  showed  hyenas,  and  even  the  cro- 
codile of  the  Nile.  Even  the  zebra  also,  which  is  found 
only  in  southern  Africa,  graced  their  shows,  and  they 
were  well  acquainted  with  the  most  remarkable  species 
of  the  ape  tribe. 

These  facts  show,  that  the  ancients  were  acquainted 
with  all  the  animals  of  any  size  or  consequence,  in  the 
old  world,  and  that  naturalists,  in  later  times,  although 
they  have  reduced  zoology  to  a  science,  and  have  describ- 


FOSSIL  QUADRUPEDS.  249 

ed  many  smaller  animals,  which  were  probably  unknown 
to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  have  still  failed  to  discover  any 
quadrupeds  of  considerable  size,  with  the  exception  of 
those  of  America  and  New  Holland. 

It  is  quite  improbable,  therefore,  that  any  of  the  larger 
quadrupeds  or  amphibious  animals,  now  considered  ex- 
tinct, are  still  anywhere  in  existence ;  and  since  it  has 
been  shown  that  they  are  chiefly  distinct  species,  and  not 
varieties  of  those  now  known,  there  is  no  doubt  but  these 
entire  races  have  been  destroyed  by  some  violent  catas- 
trophe. 

When,  and  by  what  means  did  these  races  perish?  At 
what  period  of  the  world  these  extinct  species  perished, 
and  whose  bones  are  found  in  many  parts  of  the  earth,  and 
by  what  means  a  destruction  so  universal  was  occasioned, 
are  important  questions  in  geology. 

From  the  comparative  ages  in  the  formations  in  which 
their  bones  are  found,  it  would  appear  that  a  great  propor- 
tion of  the  large  quadrupeds  were  destroyed  at  the  same 
time,  their  remains  being  found  contiguous  to  each  other, 
and  in  strata,  or  diluvial  deposites  apparently  of  the  same 
age.  The  most  probable  cause  of  this  general  destruction 
was  that  universal  deluge,  the  marks  of  which  we  have 
seen  still  remain  in  all  parts  of  the  earth.  It  is  true,  that 
no  certain  proof  of  this  can  be  adduced,  but  such  a>  hypoth- 
esis will  account  for  most  of  the  phenomena  observed  with 
respect  to  these  remains,  and  which  are  unaccountable  by 
any  other  supposition.  See  Deluge. 

It  is  proper,  however,  to  state  here,  that  there  exists 
one  example  of  the  extinction  of  a  species  in  modern 
times,  and  this  in  a  gradual  manner,  or  without  the  inter- 
vention of  any  general  catastrophe.  This  is  the  Dodo, 
a  large  bird,  figured  and  described  by  many  former  natu- 
ralists. It  appears  that  during  the  early  voyages  of  Euro- 
pean navigators  to  the  East  Indies,  the  Dodo  existed  in 
various  places,  and  especially  on  the  island  of  Mauritius. 
Linnaeus  described  it  under  the  genus  Didus.  Brooks 
(Nat.  Hist.  London,  1783)  describes  it  as  a  large  bird,  with 
short  legs,  great  black  eyes,  large  head,  covered  with  a 
membrane  resembling  a  hood,  or  cowl,  bill  bluish  white, 
of  great  length,  sharp  and  hooked  at  the  end,  body  covered 
with  feathers  much  like  those  of  the  ostrich ;  legs  yellow, 
with  four  strong  toes.  It  is  a  simple  bird,  swallows  stones 


250  FOSSIL  QUADRUPEDS. 

and  is  easily  taken.  Its  flesh  is  good  and  wholesome,  and 
three  or  four  are  enough  to  dine  one  hundred  sailors. 
Vol.  ii.  p.  66. 

Cuvier  (Animal  Kingdom)  says  that  the  species  Didvt 
ineptus,  a  description  of  which  was  first  drawn  up  by  the 
Dutch  navigators,  has  completely  disappeared,  nothing  re- 
maining of  it  at  the  present  day,  but  a  foot  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  a  head  at  the  Asmolean  Museum  at  Oxford. 
This,  it  is  believed,  is  the  only  instance  in  which  any  spe- 
cies known  to  naturalists  has  disappeared. 


PARTICULAR  FOSSILS. 

It  is  incompatible  with  the  design  of 'this  work,  to  give 
a  classification  of  those  animals  whose  remains  have  been 
discovered  and  described  by  different  authors.  A  mere 
enumeration  of  their  species  and  varieties,  including  the 
shells,  would  indeed  fill  a  volume  much  larger  than  this. 
We  shall,  therefore,  select  such  as  are  most  interesting 
and  instructive  only,  without  reference  to  scientific  ar- 
rangement. 


QUADRUPEDS. 

Order  Packydermata,  or  thick  skinned.  This  is  the 
first  order  of  fossil  quadrupeds,  examined  by  Cuvier.  It 
contains  thirteen  genera  of  non-ruminant,  hoofed  animals, 
viz.,  Elephant,  Mastodon,  Rhinoceros,  Hippopotamus,  Ta- 
pir, Hog,  Horse,  Daman,  Pecaris,  Phacocheres,  Anoplo- 
therium,  Palseotherium,  and  Elasmotherium. 

Genus  Elephant.  Of  this  genus  there  are  three  dis- 
tinct species,  two  of  which,  the  Indian  and  the  African, 
still  exist,  the  third  having  been  found  only  in  the  fossil 
state. 

1.  The  Indian  elephant  is  found  on  both  sides  of  the 
Ganges,  and  in  Borneo,  Java,  Sumatra,  and  other  Indian 
islands.     This  species  has  an  oblong  scull,  concave  front, 
small  ears,  with  grinding  teeth,  marked  by  ribands,  or 
plate  lines,  which  are  waved. 

2.  The  African  species  are  found  at  the  Cape  of  Good 


FOSSIL    QUADRUPEDS.  £51 

Hope,  Senegal,  and  Guinea.  It  has  a  rounded  scull, 
large  ears,  and  grinders,  with  lozenge-shaped  lines  on 
their  crowns. 

3.  Fossil  or  primeval  elephant  (Elephas  primigenius.) 
This  is  the  mammoth  of  the  Russians.  It  has  an  oblong 
scull,  concave  front,  very  long  bony  sockets  for  its  tusks ; 
lower  jaw  bone  obtuse,  grinders  parallel,  and  marked  with 
nearly  parallel,  and  little  waved  ribands  on  the  crown. 

The  bones  of  the  last  species  are  found  in  the  fossil  state 
only,  the  species  being  extinct. 

The  fossil  elephant  more  nearly  resembled  the  Indian 
than  the  African  species,  but  differed  from  both  in  the 
form  of  its  grinders,  the  great  size  of  its  tusks,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  projection  of  its  tusk  sockets,  (see  fig.  50.) 
The  peculiarity  last  mentioned,  must  have  very  much 
modified  the  figure  and  organization  of  the  proboscis,  and 
given  to  this  elephant  a  physiognomy,  differing  much 
more  from  the  other  species  than  might  be  inferred  from 
the  resemblance  of  the  other  bones.  Its  size  was  about 
that  of  the  Indian  elephant,  viz.  from  ten  to  thi'rteen,  or 
even  sixteen  feet  in  height 

In  all  animals  of  the  same  species,  and  ages,  the  teeth 
are  precisely  alike,  in  form  and  number,  and  therefore 
whenever  we  find  merely  a  similarity,  and  not  an  identity 
in  this  respect,  we  may  know  that  the  species  are  different, 
though  the  genera  may  be  the  same.  The  form  of  the 
jaw  also  differs  with  those  of  the  teeth. 

Fig.  49. 


The  annexed  cuts  show  the  difference  between  the 
grinders  of  the  living,  and  the  fossil  elephant.  That  on 
ihe  left  hand,  fig.  49,  represents  the  under  jaw  of  the  liv- 


252  FOSSIL    QUADRUPEDS. 

ing  Indian  species ;  that  on  the  right,  the  corresponding 
part  of  the  fossil  elephant.  The  sides  of  that  of  the  living 
species,  converge  nearly  together  at  the  lower  part,  and  it 
has  a  projecting  point  at  A,  furrowed  with  a  long,  narrow 
canal.  The  teeth  also  converge,  and  the  inequalities,  or 
ribands  on  the  crowns,  are  waving  lines,  running  oblique- 
ly crosswise.  The  teeth  in  the  fossil  jaw  stand  parallel  to 
each  other,  and  the  canal  in  front  is  much  shorter  and 
wider,  and  without  the  projecting  point.  The  ribands  also 
in  these  are  not  oblique,  as  in  the  living,  but  run  trans- 
versely across  the  crowns. 

In  the  two  living  species,  the  tusk  sockets  (alveoli,)  do 
not  extend  further  down  than  the  end  of  the  lower  jaw,  so 
that  the  chin  has  room  to  protrude  between  the  tusks  in  a 
pointed  projection.  But  in  the  fossil  heads,  on  account 
of  the  great  length  of  the  tusk  sockets,  the  lower  jaw  has 
the  appearance  of  having  been  truncated,  or  blunted  at  its 
lower  end,  so  as  to  admit  of  its  being  closed  on  the  upper 
one  by  means  of  which  the  lips  come  together  in  the  act 
of  mastication,  contrary  from  what  takes  place  in  the  liv- 
ing species. 

These,  with  other  differences,  in  the  osteology  of  the 
fossil  and  living  elephants,  which  need  not  here  be  de- 
tailed, make  it  certain  that  the  fossil  species  belonged  to  a 
race  of  animals  not  now  in  existence. 

They  resembled  the  mastodons,  in  many  respects,  but 
were  more  nearly  allied  to  the  elephants,  especially  in  the 
form  of  the  grinders. 

The  grinders  of  the  fossil  elephant  are  often  ten  or 
twelve  inches  long,  and  have  twenty-four  ribands,  or  rais- 
ed plates  of  enamel,  crossing  their  crowns. 

Fossil  elephant  bones  have  been  found  in  a  great  num- 
ber of  places,  and  in  many  different  countries.  In  nearly 
every  part  of  Siberia,  as  high  as  latitude  65°,  wherever  a 
river  happens  to  undermine  its  banks,  the  bones  of  these 
animals  are  dislodged.  In  some  places,  they  have  been 
found  in  such  abundance,  that  large  quantities  have  been 
transported  to  other  countries,  as  a  valuable  article  of 
commerce.  Indeed,  it  is  said,  that  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  the  ivory  employed  in  the  arts,  is  of  the  fossil 
kind. 

Lieut.  Kotzebue,  in  his  late  voyage  of  discovery,  found 
the  bones  and  teeth  of  elephants,  oreserved  in  an  iceberg, 
near  Bhering  straits. 


FOSSIL    QUADRUPEDS.  253 

In  the  valley  of  the  Arno,  near  Florence,  so  great  was 
the  accumulation  of  these  fossil  bones,  that  it  is  said  the 
inhabitants  formerly  used  them  for  making  fences  between 
their  fields.  TJiese  bones  are  also  found  in  many  parts  of 
France,  in  Germany,  in  almost  every  part  of  Italy,  the 
Netherlands,  Holland,  Russia,  Bohemia,  in  many  parts  of 
England,  and  in  the  northern  regions  of  North  America. 
A  remarkable  locality  of  them  was  discovered  at  Thiede, 
near  Wolfenbuttel,  where  eleven  tusks  and  thirty  grinders 
were  disinterred  within  a  short  distance  of  each  other. 
One  of  the  tusks  was  fourteen  feet  eight  inches  long,  and 
bent  into  a  perfect  semi-circle.  In  nearly  every  gravel 
pit,  around  London,  the  bones  of  this  species  are  found. 
They  have  also  been  discovered  in  Brentford,  Kew,  Wal- 
lingford,  Dorchester,  Abingdon,  Oxford,  and  many  other 
places  in  England. 

This  species  must  therefore  have  been  exceedingly  nu- 
merous, and  widely  spread  over  different  parts  of  the  globe. 

Elephant  f  reserved  in  ice.  In  several  instances,  the 
bones  of  the  fossil  elephant  have  been  found  imbedded  in 
ice  ;  that  of  Lieut.  Kotzebue  has  just  been  mentioned.  In 
one  instance,  the  entire  body  of  one  of  these  animals  pre- 
served in  this  manner,  has  been  discovered.  It  occurred 
near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Lena,  in  Siberia.  The  flesh 
had  undergone  no  decomposition,  the  whole  animal  hav- 
ing been  entirely  surrounded  by  the  frozen  mass.  This 
discovery  was  originally  made  by  a  Tungusian  fisherman, 
in  1798,  who  saw  a  large  mass  projecting  from  the  ice, 
but  so  far  above  his  reach  that  he  was  unable  to  ascertain 
its  nature.  The  next  year,  going  to  the  same  place,  the 
mass  was  found  partly  disengaged  from  its  bed,  but  still 
the  man  was  uncertain  what  it  might  be,  as  it  was  more 
than  a  hundred  feet  above  him,  and  inaccessible  to  his  ap- 
proach. The  next  year  it  was  again  seen,  by  the  same 
man,  but  it  was  not  until  the  summer  of  1803,  five  years 
after  the  first  discovery,  that  it  fell  down  on  a  sand  beach 
of  the  Arctic  ocean  so  as  to  be  examined. 

The  fisherman  now  obtained  a  prize,  for  having  detach- 
ed the  two  tusks,  he  removed  and  sold  them  for  fifty 
roubles. 

In  1806,  Professor  Adams,  of  St.  Petersburg,  went  to 
examine  this  animal,  which  still  remained  on  the  sand 
beach  where  it  had  fallen,  but  the  body  was  then  consid 
22 


£54  FOSSIL    QUADRUPEDS. 

erably  mutilated,  the  people  in  the  neighborhood  having 
taken  away  large  quantities  of  the  flesh  to  feed  their  dogs; 
and  the  white  bears  had  not  failed  to  regale  themselves  on 
this  antedeluvian  delicacy.  The  skeleton,  however,  re- 
mained quite  entire,  except  that  one  of  the  fore-legs,  and 
the  tusks  were  gone.  The  head  remained  covered,  by 
the  dried  skin,  and  the  pupils  of  the  eyes  were  still  distin- 
guishable. The  brain,  on  opening  the  scull,  was  found 
not  quite  filling  its  cavity,  being  somewhat  dried.  One 
of  the  ears  was  in  excellent  preservation,  still  retaining  its 
form,  and  a  tuft  of  strong  bristly  hair.  This  animal  was 
a  male,  and  had  a  mane  of  considerable  length,  still  on  his 
neck. 

The  skin,  when  detached,  was  so  thick  and  heavy,  that 
it  was  with  difficulty  ten  men  could  remove  it.  More  than 
thirty  pounds  of  the  hair  and  bristles  of  this  animal  were 
gathered  from  the  beach,  where  it  had  been  left,  and 
trampled  upon  by  the  white  bears,  when  tearing  and  de- 
vouring the  carcass.  This  hair  was  of  three  kinds,  viz. 
stifF  black  bristles,  a  foot  long ;  coarse  hair,  of  a  reddish- 
brown  color,  and  a  woolly  covering  next  the  skin  of  the 
same  color. 

The  skeleton  of  this  animal  was  transported  to  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, and  the  tusks  having  been  procured  th.^  wr  <?!«» 
was  set  up  in  the  museum  of  that  city,  wh.fr?  i*  s;U  *t* 
mains. 

Pig.  50. 


The  annexed  wood  cut,  fig.  50,  represents  the  head  and 
tusks  of  this  animal,  as  drawn  by  Mr.  Stokes,  who  also 
gave  a  description  of  the  whole,  in  the  Ed.  Quart.  Jour- 
nal, First  Serie?,  p.  95. 


FOSSIL  QUADRUPEDS. 


255 


It  will  be  observed  that  these  tusks  are  of  enormous 
length,  and  that  they  form  nearly  a  circle,  differing  great- 
ly, both  in  shape  and  size,  from  those  of  the  elephant  of 
the  present  day.  The  projection  of  the  tusk  sockets,  mark- 
ed a,  may  also  be  observed  in  this  cut,  and  which,  as  al- 
ready noticed,  are  peculiar  to  this  species. 

The  skeleton  is  about  nine  and  a  half  feet  high,  and  six- 
teen and  a  half  feet  long;  and  when  it  is  considered  how 
much  the  cartilages,  flesh  and  skin,  added  to  his  height  and 
dimensions,  it  is  obvious  that  this  must  have  been  an  ani- 
mal of  enormous  magnitude. 

The  hair  with  which  this  animal  was  covered,  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  it  was  fitted  for  a  cold  climate ;  and  in 
addition  to  this  instance,  Professor  Pallas  mentions  the 
discovery  of  an  entire  rhinoceros,  with  its  skin  and  hair, 
well  preserved,  and  which  occurred  on  the  banks  of  a  river, 
not  far  from  the  Lena,  where  the  elephant  was  found. 
The  rhinoceros  is  described  as  being  covered  with  thick 
hair,  which  was  particularly  long  about  the  feet. 

From  these  facts,  it  has  been  urged  by  some  naturalists, 
that  the  bones  of  the  great  quadrupeds  found  in  cold  cli- 
mates, and  of  genera  which  now  only  inhabit  hot  ones,  were 
of  species  so  different  from  these  tribes,  that  they  were  fitted 
for  the  cold  situations  where  their  remains  are  found ;  and 
hence  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  suppose  that  they  were 
either  transported  from  warmer  climates,  or  that  the  climates 
where  their  bones  are  now  found,  have  suffered  any  change. 
But,  as  already  observed,  there  remains  a  difficulty  fully  as 
great,  as  is  presented  by  the  theories  of  transportation,  or 
change  of  climate ;  for  if  Siberia  was  never  warmer  than 
at  present,  it  is  impossible  to  believe  that  it  should  have  ever 
produced  a  quantity  of  vegetation,  sufficient  to  have  sup- 
ported such  herds  of  enormous  animals,  even  during  the 
summer,  and  much  less  during  the  long  winters  of  that 
climate.  See  "  Change  of  Climate.1' 

Genus  Mastodon.  This  term  comes  from  two  words, 
which  signify  a  "little  hill"  and  a  "tooth,"  in  allusion  to 
the  prominences,  or  tubercles,  which  the  crowns  of  these 
grinders  present.  This  form  of  the  crown  is  similar  to 
that  of  carnivorous  animals;  and  hence,  when  little  was 
known  of  fossil  bones,  it  was  supposed  that  the  mastodon 
had  been  a  flesh  eater,  an  error  fully  refuted  by  Cuvier. 


256  FOSSIL  QUADRUPEDS. 

Fig.  51. 


The  form  of  a  mastodon's  grinder  is  represented  by  fig. 
51 ;  the  hilly  points  being  a  little  worn  by  use.  It  is  here 
represented  one  fourth  of  the  natural  size,  and  is  from  a 
specimen  in  the  King's  cabinet,  at  Paris.  The  difference 
between  this  and  the  elephant's  grinder,  will  immediately 
be  seen.  The  number  of  such  teeth  in  the  jaws  of  the 
adult  mastodon,  was  four  in  each. 

The  whole  of  the  genus  mastodon  are  extinct ;  but  from 
their  bones,  Cuvier  has  determined  six  distinct  species. 
These  bones  have  been  found  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
the  species  being  so  different,  as  in  some  instances,  not  even 
to  inhabit  the  same  countries. 

The  species  of  this  animal  are  as  follows :  1.  The  Great 
Mastodon.  2.  The  Mastodon  with  narrow  teeth.  3.  The 
Mastodon  of  the  Cordilleras.  4.  The  Mastodon  of  Hum- 
boldt.  5.  The  Small  Mastodon.  6.  The  Tapiroid  Mas- 
todon. To  these,  Mr.  Clift  has  added  two  others,  making 
in  all,  eight  species. 

The  remains  of  the  great  mastodon  have  heretofore  been 
found  only  in  North  America.  That  with  narrow  teeth, 
formerly  inhabited  South  America  ;  and  at  Lima,  many 
of  their  grinders  are  preserved  in  the  public  cabinet,  and 
shown  for  the  teeth  of  giants.  The  bones  of  the  other  spe- 
cies occur  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  especially  in  Italy 
and  Germany. 

Dr.  Ure  states  that  the  first  account  of  the  Mastodon,  is 
in  a  letter  from  Dr.  Mather,  in  America,  to  Dr.  Wood- 
ward, in  London,  dated  1712,  and  intimating  that  bones 
and  teeth  of  monstrous  magnitude  had  been  discovered  in 


FOSSIL    QUADRUPEDS.  257 

1705,  in  Albany,  in  New  England ;  at  present  in  the  state 
of  New  York  on  the  Hudson  river.  He  imagined  them 
to  be  the  bones  of  giants.  No  interest  was  excited,  how- 
ever, until  Mr.  Croghan.an  English  geographer,  in  1767, 
sent  several  chests  of  osseous  remains  to  Lord  Shelburne, 
and  other  persons  in  London.  Dr.  William  Hunter  ex- 
amined these  bones,  and  published  an  accurate  description 
of  the  lower  jaw,  in  the  Phil.  Transactions  for  1768.  He 
demonstrated  that  the  animal  in  question,  while  it  differed 
from  the  elephant,  had  nothing  in  common  with  the  hip- 
popotamus. He  justly  concluded  that  the  tusks  and  bones 
belonged  to  the  same  animal. 

In  1802,  Mr.  Peale  of  Philadelphia,  having  procured 
numerous  bones  of  the  same  animal  from  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Newburgh,  on  the  Hudson  river,  formed  two 
skeletons  out  of  them,  copying  in  wood  those  parts  which 
happened  to  be  wanting.  One  of  these  still  remains  in 
Mr.  Peale's  Museum,  and  is  popularly  known  as  the 
skeleton  of  a  Mammoth. 

At  the  salt-springs  in  Ohio,  called  licks,  and  especially 
at  the  Big-Bone  lick,  vast  quantities  of  these  bones  have 
.been  found.  Mr.  Croghan,  more  than  seventy  years  ago, 
thought  he  saw  there  the  remains  of  thirty  individuals; 
but  a  much  greater  number  from  that  vicinity  have  since 
been  found.  These  bones  also  occur  in  Ohio  and  Ken- 
tucky, and  it  is  probable  that  they  exist  in  all  the  tempe- 
rate parts  of  North  America. 

In  size,  the  great  mastodon  was  about  that  of  the  ele- 
phant, though  it  does  not  appear,  in  general,  to  have  been 
more  than  twelve  feet  in  height,  the  Indian  elephant  some- 
times being  fifteen.  Its  tusks,  trunk,  and  feet,  and  the  bones 
of  the  whole  skeleton  were  very  similar  to  those  of  the  ele- 
phant; the  difference  being  chiefly  in  the  dental  system, 
which,  with  respect  to  the  grinders,  has  been  above  de- 
scribed and  illustrated. 

The  number  of  grinders  in  the  adult  mastodon,  as  al- 
ready stated,  is  four  in  each  jaw.  Of  these,  the  two  front 
ones,  in  the  upper  jaw,  have  six  points,  and  the  other  two 
in  the  same  jaw  have  eight.  In  the  lower  jaw,  the  two 
anterior  ones  have  also  six  points,  and  the  two  posterior 
ones,  ten.  But,  it  appears  that  the  great  mastodon  had, 
successively,  at  least  four  grinders  on  each  side  of  its  two 
jaws :  but  as  in  the  elephant,  these  teeth  never  appeared 
all  at  the  same  time.  Their  succession  took  place,  in  both 
22* 


258  FOSSIL    QUADRUPEDS. 

animals,  from  behind,  forwards.  When  the  posterior  one 
began  to  cut  the  gum,  the  anterior  one  was  greatly  worn, 
and  ready  to  drop  out.  In  this  way,  they  replaced  one 
another.  There  does  not  seem  to  have  been  ever  more 
than  two  on  each  side,  at  the  same  time,  in  full  exercise, 
and  in  old  age,  only  one.  Thus,  the  effective  number  of 
grinders,  in  youth,  was  eight,  and,  in  extreme  old  age,  only 
four.  The  largest  grinders  of  the  mastodon  weigh  ten  or 
twelve  pounds. 

Genus  Hippopotamus.  There  is  only  one  species  of 
this  animal  living;  but  Cuvier  has  determined  two  or 
three  others,  existing  in  the  fossil  state.  They  are  all 
much  smaller  than  the  existing  species,  one  of  them  being 
only  about  the  size  of  a  wild  boar,  while  the  living  one, 
is  about  twelve  feet  long,  and  five  or  six  feet  high,  and 
exceedingly  thick  set. 

There  is  a  peculiarity  in  the  grinders  of  this  animal, 
which  will  immediately  distinguish  them  from  those  of 
other  animals. 


Fig.  52. 


The  lineaments  of  the  crown  are  three  lobed,  or  trefoil- 
like,  as  represented  by  fig.  52,  which  shows  the  form  of 
the  second  grinder  of  the  left  side.  This  singularity  will 
make  the  teeth  of  this  genus  easily  recognised.  The 
roots  are  concealed  by  a  part  of  the  jaw,  the  tooth  being 
seven-ninths  of  the  natural  size. 

The  remains  of  this  genus  are  not  nearly  so  common 
as  those  of  the  elephant,  though,  in  Tuscany,  considera- 
ble numbers  have  been  found.  They  have  also  been  dis- 
covered in  several  parts  of  England,  especially  in  the 


FOSSIL    QUADRUPEDS.  259 

Kirkdale  cave.  Possibly,  the  paucity  of  these  bones  may 
be  accounted  for  by  the  circumstance  of  the  amphibious 
habits  of  this  genus,  and  their  inability  to  wander  to  any 
considerable  distances  from  the  water,  so  that  their  re- 
mains might  have  been  more  exposed  than  those  of  the 
elephant,  to  have  been  swept  into  the  sea. 

Genus  Rhinoceros.  There  are  three  existing  species 
of  this  animal.  1.  That  of  India,  with  a  single  horn  on 
the  nose,  and  a  rugous,  plaited  coat ;  the  cutting  teeth  be- 
ing separated  by  a  space  from  the  grinders.  2.  That  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  with  two  horns,  the  skin  smooth, 
and  without  folds,  and  no  cutting  teeth.  3.  That  of  Su- 
matra, with  two  horns,  the  skin  but  slightly  rugous,  thus 
resembling  that  of  the  Cape,  but  having  cutting  teeth  like 
that  of  India. 

On  comparing  the  teeth  of  the  living  species  with  those 
found  in  the  fossil  state,  Cuvier  determined  that  they  were 
so  different  as  to  constitute  another  species  of  this  animal, 
and  whose  remains  are  now  found  only  in  the  strata  of 
the  earth. 

The  remains  of  the  extinct  rhinoceros  were  first  dis- 
covered in  digging  a  well,  near  Canterbury,  in  England, 
seventeen  feet  below  the  surface.  This  was  in  1668. 
Afterwards  Professor  Pallas  found,  among  a  collection  of 
bones  at  St.  Petersburg,  four  sculls  and  five  horns,  be 
longing  to  this  animal.  Since  that  time,  the  bones  of  this 
animal  have  been  discovered  in  various  parts  of  England, 
Germany,  and  Russia. 

Megatherium.  This  name  merely  signifies  "  a  huge 
wild  beast."  It  is  the  most  rare  among  all  the  great  fos- 
sil animals. 

The  first  skeleton  of  this  singular  beast,  was  sent  from 
Buenos  Ayres,  in  South  America,  to  Madrid,  in  1789,  with 
a  notice  that  it  was  found  in  the  ground  about  three  leagues 
from  that  city. 

This  animal  was  set  up  hi  the  Royal  Cabinet  of  Madrid, 
in  the  manner  which  has  since  been  followed  by  Mr. 
Peale  of  Philadelphia,  with  respect  to  the  American  mas- 
todon, and  Mr.  Adams  of  Petersburg,  with  respect  to  the 
Siberian  elephant. 

A  minute  description  of  the  Megatherium,  was  publish- 
ed soon  after  it  was  mounted,  illustrated  by  five  copper- 


260  FOSSIL    QUADRUPEDS. 

plate  engravings.    Afterwards  a  Livoninan  anatomist,  and 
a  German  draughtsman,  conjointly,  published  an  exact 
representation,  and  a  good  description  of  this  skeleton. 
Fig.  53. 


The  adjoining  cut,  fig.  53,  from  Dr.  Ure's  Geology,  is 
said,  by  the  author,  to  present  an  exact  form  of  this  skele- 
ton. It  is  thirteen  feet  long,  and  nine  feet  high,  its  size 
being  somewhat  less  than  that  of  the  mastodon. 

With  respect  to  the  habits  of  this  animal,  "  the  teeth," 
says  Dr.  Ure,  "  prove  that  it  lived  on  vegetables,  and  its 
robust  fore-feet,  armed  with  sharp  claws,  testify  that  it  was 
chiefly  their  roots  that  it  sought  after.  Its  magnitude  and 
its  talons,  supplied  it  with  abundant  means  of  defence.  It 
was  not  swift  in  running,  but  this  was  unnecessary,  as 
it  had  no  occasion  either  to  pursue  or  fly.  It  would 
therefore  be  difficult  to  find  in  its  organization  alone,  the 
causes  of  the  final  destruction  of  this  genus  ;  and  yet,  if  it 
still  exists,  where  can  it  be  2  How  can  it  have  escaped  all 
the  researches  of  hunters  and  naturalists  ?  Its  analogies 
approximate  it  to  different  genera  of  the  edentel,  or  tooth- 
less family  of  animals.  It  has  the  head  and  shoulder  of  a 
sloth — a  creature  possessing  both  tusks  and  grinders ; 
while  its  limbs  and  its  feet  exhibit  a  singular  mixture  of 
characters  belonging  to  the  ant-eaters,  and  the  armadillos. 
It  has  no  analogy,  whatever,  to  the  felis,  or  tiger  tribe." 
Geology,  p.  549. 

This  animal  had  neither  tusks  nor  proboscis,  like  the 
mastodon  and  elephant;  this  is  proved  by  the  great 


FOSSIL  AMPHIBIOUS  ANIMALS.  261 

length  of  its  neck,  which,  it  is  apparent,  could  not  have 
supported  such  apparatus.  As  its  fore  parts  are  exceed- 
ingly strong,  and  its  teeth  not  formed  for  tearing  flesh,  its 
claws  were  probably  employed  in  digging  for  the  roots  of 
trees,  as  food,  and  if  so,  there  is  a  probability  that  it  bur- 
rowed in  earth.  What  a  phenomenon  in  the  imagination  ! 
An  animal,  of  the  size  of  an  elephant,  running  about 
under  ground,  like  a  mole, — leaving  a  path  after  him 
large  enough  for  a  horse  and  wagon  to  follow ;  and,  per- 
haps, at  the  same  time,  throwing  up  a  ridge  on  the  surface 
that  would  stop  the  career  of  a  stage  coach.  If  he  only 
burrowed,  like  a  rabbit,  what  a  mountain  of  earth  he  must 
have  thrown  out ! 

Megolonyx.  This  term  signifies  "great  clawed"  the 
animal  being  so  named  from  the  great  size  of  its  claws. 

This  is  another  of  the  lost  animals  of  the  former  world. 
It  belongs  to  the  same  genus  with  the  last  described,  but 
Cuvier,  on  comparing  their  bones,  found  that  it  was  of  a 
different  species.  It  is  not  so  large,  by  one-third,  as  the 
megatherium,  but  of  the  same  form,  in  all  respects. 

The  bones  of  this  animal  were  found  in  a  cavern,  in  the 
county  of  Green  Briar,  Virginia,  much  decayed,  and  only 
in  sufficient  number  to  form  a  small  part  of  a  skeleton. 

Besides  these  skeletons  of  great  quadrupeds,  there  have 
been  discovered  a  great  variety  of  others  in  the  fossil 
state,  several  of  them  of  large  size,  as  the  Elk,  Tapir,  and 
some  others,  but  most  of  them  are  of  less  interest  than 
those  we  have  described,  and  for  the  descriptions  of  which, 
we  must  refer  the  reader  to  more  extended  works  on  this 
subject. 


FOSSIL  AMPHIBIOUS  ANIMALS. 

Of  the  antediluvian  amphibia,  the  crocodile  and  lizard 
tribes  form  the  most  interesting  groups,  especially  the 
latter. 

Crocodile.  Fossil  bones  of  this  animal  have  been  found 
in  various  countries,  and  in  many  localities.  In  England, 
Germany,  France,  and  Italy,  their  occurrence  in  strata, 
are  not  uncommon.  They  appear  all  to  belong  to  the 


262  FOSSIL  AMPHIBIOUS  ANIMALS. 

sub-genus  of  Cuvier,  which  he  called  gavials,  or  long 
muzzled. 

A  collection  of  these  bones,  made  at  Honfleiir  and 
Havre,  in  France,  are  preserved  in  the  museum  of  Natural 
History,  in  Paris.  But  the  most  perfect  specimen  of  this 
fossil  is  said  to  have  been  found  near  Monheim,  in  Ger- 
many. It  is  enclosed  between  two  plates  of  schistose, 
marly  limestone,  of  a  yellowish  gray  color,  mingled  with 
fragments  of  quartz.  It  was  accompanied  with  the  cast 
of  the  tail  of  a  small  fish,  and  the  remains  of  an  insect. 

The  bones  of  the  crocodile  are  browner  than  the  stone 
itself.  The  slab  containing  this  animal  is  three  feet  long, 
and  fifteen  inches  broad,  and  the  form  of  the  head,  trunk, 
and  tail,  from  end  to  end,  is  plainly  to  be  seen  impressed 
in  the  rock,  and  very  little  deranged  in  respect  to  shape. 
The  upper  jaw  is  armed  with  twenty-five  or  twenty-six 
teeth  on  each  side.  The  number  of  vertebrae,  or  pieces 
composing  the  back  bone,  are  sixty-nine  ;  and  these  are  not 
deranged,  except  towards  the  tail. 

The  remains  of  the  fossil  crocodile  are  found  in  strata, 
lying  far  below  those  containing  any  species  of  quadru- 
pe'ds,  and  hence  are  supposed  to  be  of  more  ancient  date. 
Some  remains  of  this  animal  in  the  Jura  mountains,  are  in 
limestone  so  solid  as  to  be  susceptible  of  a  high  polish. 

With  respect  to  these  bones,  Cuvier  remarks,  that  "  the 
presence  of  an  animal,  such  as  the  crocodile,  apparently 
belonging  to  fresh  water,  in  such  beds,  is  a  very  remark- 
able circumstance.  It  is  the  more  deserving  of  notice,  as 
it  is  accompanied  with  the  remains  of  tortoises,  all  equally 
inhabitants  of  fresh  water.  This  fact,  joined  to  several 
others,  proves  that  there  existed  dry  lands,  irrigated  by 
rivers,  at  an  exceedingly  remote  period,  and  long  before 
the  successions  of  those  tertiary  mineral  formations,  which 
exist  in  the  neighborhood  of  Paris. 

Megalosaurus.  This  is  one  of  the  saurian,  or  lizard 
tribe;  the  term  signifies  "  great  lizard."  It  appears  to  be 
allied  to  the  lizards  and  crocodiles,  but  differs  from  them 
both.  This  was  an  antediluvian  monster,  far  exceeding 
in  size  any  of  the  crocodiles  of  the  present  day.  A  fos- 
sil thigh  bone  of  one  of  these  animals,  which  Cuvier  mea- 
sured, was  thirty-two  inches  long ;  and  supposing  that  the 
animal  was  proportioned  like  others  of  the  lizard  tribe,  he 
must  have  had  a  total  length  of  forty-eight  feet ;  and  from 


FOSSIL  AMPHIBIOUS  ANIMALS. 


the  incisor  form  of  its  cutting  teeth,  this  must  have  been 
an  exceedingly  fierce  and  voracious  animal. 

The  bones  of  this  specimen  were  found  at  Stonesfield,  in 
England,  among  innumerable  marine  fossils,  such  as  the 
teeth  of  sharks,  the  remains  of  crabs,  sea  shells,  &c.,  and 
therefore  there  is  little  doubt  but  this  was  a  monster  of 
the  ocean,  though  amphibious. 

MrJMantell,  of  Lewes,  in  Sussex,  has  discovered  mega- 
losaurus'  bones,  of  still  greater  dimensions,  one  of  the 
thigh  bones  being  twenty-two  inches  in  circumference, 
whence  he  concludes  that  its  length  must  have  been  fifty- 
four  inches.  This,  according  to  the  estimated  propor- 
tions of  the  animal,  gives  him  a  total  length  of  more  than 
seventy-five  feet,  a  size  in  the  animal  kingdom,  rarely 
exceeded,  even  by  the  whales  of  the  present  day,  and  yet 
this  monster,  in  all  probability,  was  capable  of  crawling, 
or  walking,  both  on  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  on  the 
dry  land,  like  the  crocodiles  of  our  own  times.  Its  height 
was  probably  fourteen  or  fifteen  feet,  being  equal  to  that 
of  the  largest  elephant. 

What  sort  of  engines  the  ante- 
diluvians possessed,  which  could 
have  withstood  or  destroyed  a  fierce 
reptile,  capable  of  devouring  an  ele- 
phant or  a  rhinoceros  at  a  meal,  we 
know  not.  At  present,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  our  artillery,  we  possess 
no  weapons  capable  of  preventing 
the  devastations  of  such  a  monster. 

The  teeth  of  this  animal  were  lodg- 
ed in  distinct  sockets.  They  were 
curved  backwards,  undoubtedly  for 
the  purpose  of  the  better  securing 
their  prey.  They  were  compressed 
or  flattened  laterally,  with  the  edge 
toothed,  or  serrated,  through  the 
whole  length  of  the  posterior,  or  cut- 
ting side,  and  at  the  point  of  the  ai 
terior  side  or  edge.  Fig.  54  repre- 
sents the  tooth  of  a  megalosaurus  of 
the  natural  size.  It  is  thin  on  the 
concave  or  cutting  edge,  but  thicker 
on  the  convex  side,  so  as  to  give  it 
strength,  its  shape  being  similar  to 


264  FOSSIL  AMPHIBIOUS  ANIMALS. 

that  of  a  pruning  knife.  An  animal  seventy-five  feet  in 
length,  with  a  mouth  containing  perhaps  more  than  sixty 
such  teeth,  with  a  disposition  like  that  of  the  crocodile,  must 
have  presented  a  spectacle  of  which  we  postdiluvians  can 
have  but  a  faint  conception. 

The  formation  of  Stonesfield,  where  these  remains  oc- 
cur, consists  of  a  sandy  slate,  about  six  feet  thick,  lying 
below  several  strata  of  limestone,  of  different  kinds,  and 
about  forty  feet  from  the  surface.  ' 

Iguanodon.  This  animal  approached  in  structure,  more 
nearly  to  the  Iguana,  a  large  species  of  lizard,  found  in  the 
West-Indies,  than  to  any  other  species.  Its  length  was  be- 
tween sixty  and  seventy  feet. 

Cuvier  pronounced  this  reptile  to  have  been  the  most 
singular  and  extraordinary  of  all  the  antediluvian  wonders 
yet  discovered.  Its  great  peculiarity  consists  in  the  form 
of  its  teeth,  which  shows,  that  notwithstanding  its  saurian 
form,  it  was  a  herbivorous  animal,  in  which  it  differed  from 
all  the  lizard  tribes. 

Ichthyosaurus  and  Phsiosaurus.  These  are  two  genera 
of  singularly  formed  sea  lizards.  Ichthyosaurus  is  derived 
from  two  Greek  words,  and  signifies  marine  lizard.  Ple- 
siosaurus  means  lizard-like. 

These,  among  all  the  fossil  animals  that  have  been  disco- 
vered, are  most  calculated  to  surprise  the  naturalist,  by  their 
least  resemblance  to  any  individuals  now  living,  and  by 
their  singular  combinations  of  structure. 

In  the  Ichthyosaurus  we  see  the  muzzle  of  a  dolphin, 
the  teeth  of  a  crocodile,  the  head  and  breast  of  a  lizard,  the 
paddles  of  ^  turtle,  and  the  backbone  of  a  fish. 

In  the  Plesiosaurus  we  have  the  same  turtle-like  pad- 
dles, a  lizard's  head,  and  a  long  neck,  like  the  body  of  a 
serpent. 

Fig.  55. 


Ichthyosaurus.     This  fossil  skeleton  is  represented  by 
fig.  55.     No  entire  skeleton  of  this  animal  has  yet  been 


FOSSIL    AMPHIBIOUS    ANIMALS.  265 

found  ;  but  fragments  having  been  collected  in  the  lime- 
stone formations  in  various  parts  of  England,  and  the 
whole  having  been  joined,  and  the  absent  parts  supplied 
with  carved  wood,  a  skeleton,  such  as  is  here  represented, 
is  composed.  It  appears  that  England  was  the  principal 
sepulchre  of  this  animal,  few  of  its  remains  having  been 
discovered  otherwhere. 

In  length,  this  animal  was  about  twenty  feet,  and  there- 
fore, does  not  in  this  respect,  compare  with  several  of  the 
antediluvian  reptiles.  But  its  singular  combinations  of 
structure,  together  with  the  vast  number  of  bones  compo- 
sing its  skeleton,  have  rendered  it  one  of  the  most  curious 
and  interesting  objects  to  naturalists  which  has  been  pre- 
sented. 

The  vertebra?  amount  to  about  ninety  in  number,  and 
the  number  of  pieces  of  bone  contained  in  each  paddle,  is 
100.  These  are  flat,  and  placed  in  contact  with  each 
other,  like  Mosaic  work,  or  a  tesselated  pavement.  It  was 
an  amphibious  animal,  but  lived  chiefly  in  the  water,  as 
is  indicated  by  the  form  of  its  paddles,  which  hardly  could 
have  permitted  it  even  to  crawl  upon  the  shore.  It  is 
probable,  therefore,  that  although  it  was  an  air-breathing 
animal,  if  it  had  the  misfortune  to  be  cast  upon  the  shore, 
it  must  ha.ve  remained  motionless  and  died,  as  whales  and 
dolphins  do,  under  like  circumstances. 

The  teeth  of  this  animal  were  about  half  an  inch  in 
length,  sharp  pointed,  but  not  curved  like  those  of  the 
megalosaurus ;  their  number  was  thirty  in  each  jaw. 

But  the  most  striking  feature  in  the  appearance  of  this 
strange  animal,  was  the  enormous  size  of  his  eyes,  and 
which  must  have  given  h!"a  a  most  terrific  physiognomy. 
Fig.  56. 


The  sclerotic,  or  outer  coat  of  the  eye,  was  beset  by  a 
circle  of  bony  pieces,  as  seen  in  the  adjoining  representa- 
tion of  the  skeleton  of  the  head,  probably  in  order  to  give 
it  strength  arid  prominence.  These  pieces  of  bone  from 

23 


266  FOSSIL    AMPHIBIOUS    ANIMALS. 

a  character  common  to  birds,  tortoises,  and  lizards,  to  the 
exclusion  of  crocodiles  and  fishes ;  and  hence,  one  of  the 
marks  by  which  it  is  proved  that  this  animal  belonged  to 
the  lizard  tribe.  The  comparative  size  of  the  eye  socket, 
when  compared  with  the  other  parts  of  the  head,  will  give 
us  some  idea  of  the  frightful  appearance  of  this  animal  j 
as  will  the  long  rows  of  curved  teeth  with  which  his  jaws 
are  studded,  of  his  power  to  seize  and  hold  his  prey. 
From  the  dimensions  of  the  head,  we  may  suppose  that 
these  eyes  were  fully  as  broad  as  a  tea  saucer,  being  pro- 
bably at  least  six  inches  in  diameter. 

Plesiosaurus.  "  This  genus,"  says  Dr.  Ure,  "  is  en 
tirely  English,  and  solely  due  to  the  sagacity  of  Mr.  Co- 
nybeare."  Some  vertebrae,  mixed  with  those  of  the  cro 
dodile  and  icthyosaurus,  in  the  lias  of  the  environs  ot 
Bristol,  appeared  to  him  to  differ  from  those  of  both  ani 
mals.  From  this  circumstance,  he  was  led  to  make  fur 
ther  examinations,  and  these  were  continued  until  a  suf 
ficient  number  of  bones  had  been  obtained  to  show  the  forra 
and  size  of  this  strange  antediluvian. 
Fig.  57. 


The  most  singular  part  of  its  construction,  is  the  im- 
mense length  of  the  neck,  and  the  disproportion  of  this, 
to  the  other  parts  of  the  system.  This  is  composed  of  a 
greater  number  of  bones  than  the  neck  of  any  known  ani- 
mal ;  exceeding,  in  this  respect,  even  the  swan,  which 
has  a  greater  number  than  any  existing  species. 

The  most  entire  specimen  of  the  plesiosaurus  yet  found, 
is  that  which  came  from  Lyme  Regis.  This  relic  is  con- 
tained in  several  blocks  of  stone,  which  were  once  con- 
tinuous, and  which  fit  each  other  exactly.  The  bones 
have  the  posture  which  they  would  have  taken,  had  the 
animal  been  crushed  by  a  heavy  weight  from  above.  Its 
length  is  nine  feet  six  inches.  The  number  of  vertebrae 
are  ninety,  of  which  forty  belong  to  the  neck. 

The  plesiosaurus,  in  the  living  state,  must  have  present- 


BONE    CAVERNS.  267 

ed  a  neck  resembling  a  large  serpent,  with  the  tail  cut  off, 
and  the  remaining  half  fastened  to  a  trunk,  the  propor- 
tions of  which,  differed  from  those  of  many  other  animals. 
The  tail,  especially,  by  its  shortness,  could  scarcely  remind 
one  of  a  reptile,  and  hence  this  animal  must  have  display- 
ed a  form  so  much  the  more  singular,  as  its  extremities, 
like  those  of  the  ichthyosaurus,  were  genuine  fins,  similar 
to  those  of  the  whale  tribe. 

That  this  animal  was  aquatic  in  its  habits,  is  evident 
from  its  fins,  and  that  its  element  was  the  sea,  may  be 
equally  inferred,  from  the  marine  remains,  withxwhich  its 
bones  are  everywhere  associated.  Its  motion  on  the 
land,  like  that  of  the  ichthyosaurus,  must  have  been  awk- 
ward and  difficult,  and  its  long  neck  would  impede  its 
progress  through  the  water.  It  was  an  air-breathing  ani- 
mal, and  Mr.  Conybeare  suggests  whether  it  might  not 
have  swam  along  the  surface,  arching  its  neck,  like  the 
swan,  and  now  and  then  darting  down  its  head  to  catch 
the  fish  below. 


BONE    CAVERNS. 


Professor  Buckland,  in  consequence  of  the  publication 
of  his  great  work,  "  Reliquiae  Diluvianas"  has  made  the 
subject  of  osseous  caverns  highly  interesting  and  instruc- 
tive. Before  the  appearance  of  that  work,  little  was 
known  on  this  subject,  nor  was  it,  indeed,  considered  by 
geologists  as  of  much  importance.  The  bones  of  some 
animals  found  in  caves,  had  occasionally  attracted  notice, 
but  no  one  appears  to  have  inquired  how,  or  under  what 
circumstances,  they  could  have  found  their  way  into  such 
places.  Nor  was  it  until  after  the  celebrated  cavern  of 
Kirkdale  was  discovered  and  described,  that  the  contents 
of  other  caverns  became  the  subjects  of  geological  inves- 
tigation. 

We  have  already  given  some  account  of  the  Kirkdale 
cave  under  the  article  "  Change  of  Climate,"  for  the  pur- 
pose of  showing  that  England  was  once  the  native  coun- 
try of  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  and  hyena. 

Since  the  description  of  that  cave,  notices  of  others, 
containing  bones,  have  become  so  numerous,  that  we  have 
not  room  even  for  a  catalogue  of  their  names  and  places ; 
and  there  is  little  doubt,  but  these  will  ultimately  be  the 


268  BONE    CAVERNS. 

means  of  producing  a  body  of  geological  evidence  of 
much  importance. 

It  appears  that  all  extensive  limestone  formations,  con- 
tain more  or  less  such  caverns  as  that  of  Kirkdale,  some 
of  which  are  of  great  extent,  and  have  long  been  admired 
for  the  brilliancy  of  their  stalactites,  and  the  pillar-like 
forms  which  they  assume.  The  island  of  Crete  contains 
a  great  cavern,  which  has  long  been  the  wonder  of  tra- 
vellers, and  throughout  the  same  island,  Tournefort  says, 
there  is  a  world  of  Caverns. 

In  the  limestone  districts  of  England,  these  caves  abound. 
In  Derbyshire  alone,  Mr.  Farey  enumerates  twenty-eight 
remarkable  caves,  and  as  many  fissures  locally  called 
"snake  holes,"  or  "swallow  holes,"  from  their  swallow- 
ing up  the  streams  and  brooks,  which  sometimes  in  that 
district  disappear  suddenly,  without,  so  far  as  is  known, 
ever  rising  again  to  the  surface. 

Of  the  bone  caverns  of  Germany,  Cuvier  says,  "  noth- 
ing is  more  truly  curious,  than  the  new  theatre  to  which  I 
am  about  to  transport  my  readers.  Numerous  grottos, 
brilliantly  decorated  with  crystalline  stalactites  of  every 
form,  succeeding  each  other  to  a  great  extent,  through  the 
body  of  the  mountains,  communicating  together  by  open- 
ings, so  narrow  that  a  man  can  hardly  proceed  by  crawl- 
ing on  his  hands,  yet  with  their  floors  all  bestrewed  with 
enormous  heaps  of  bones  of  animals  of  every  size — form 
undoubtedly,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  phenomena 
which  the  fossil  kingdom  can  present  to  the  meditations 
of  the  geologist,  more  especially,  when  we  consider,  that 
this  scene  of  mortality  is  repeated  in  a  great  many  places, 
and  through  far  distant  lands.  No  wonder  then,  that 
these  vaults  of  death  have  become  the  objects  of  research 
among  the  ablest  naturalists,  and  their  bony  relics  have 
been  often  described  and  figured." 

Prior  to  these  philosophical  inquiries,  however,  these 
bones  were  famed  among  the  populace,  and  were  long  dug 
up,  and  sold  to  apothecaries  as  the  bones  of  the  fossil  uni- 
corn, and  who  again  portioned  them  out  to  their  patients 
as  sovereign  remedies  in  various  diseases.  There  is  no 
doubt  but  this  strange  traffic,  contributed  mainly  to  the 
investigation  of  old  caves,  and  the  discovery  of  new  ones, 
long  before  geologists  took  the  subject  in  hand. 

Having  already  given  such  an  account  of  the  Kirkdale 
eave  as  our  limits  will  allow,  and  to  which  the  reader  is 


BONE    CAVERNS. 


269 


referred,  we  will  here  notice  several  other  osseous  caverns 
in  different  parts  of  the  world. 

In  Germany,  there  are  many  caves,  where  bones  have 
been  found,  but  among  these,  that  of  Gaylenreuth  has  at- 
tracted most  attention,  on  account  of  its  great  extent  and 
beauty,  as  well  as  the  number  of  fossil  bones  it  contains. 
This  cave  is  situated  in  Franconia,  and  in  the  same  neigh- 
borhood with  several  others,  the  whole  of  which  have  been 
described  by  Professor  Goldfuss,  of  Bonn,  in  a  treatise  ex- 
pressly devoted  to  this  subject. 

'  The  gateway,  or  entrance  to  the  cavern  of  Gaylenreuth, 
is  seven  and  a  half  feet  high,  and  faces  to  the  east,  and  of 
this  wonderful  place,  Professor  Buckland  gives  the  follow- 
ing description. 

The  adjoining  section  is  diminished  from  that  drawn  by 
Professor  Buckland,  in  1816. 


Pig.  58. 


The  first  grotto  turns  to  the  right,  and  is  upwards  of 
eighty  feet  long.  It  is  divided  into  four  parts,  by  the  une- 
qual height  of  the  vaulted  roof;  the  first  three  are  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  feet  high,  whereas,  the  fourth  is  only  four 
or  five.  On  the  bottom  of  this  part,  and  on  a  level  with 
the  floor,  there  is  an  orifice  only  two  feet  high,  which 
leads  into  the  second  grotto.  This  runs  first  southward 
for  sixty  feet,  being  forty  feet  wide,  and  eighteen  high  ;  it 
then  turns  to  the  west  through  a  space  of  seventy  feet, 


270  BONE   CAVERNS. 

becoming  gradually  lower  till  its  altitude  is  only  five  feet. 
The  passage  to  the  third  grotto  is  very  incommodious, 
winding  through  several  corridors ;  it  is  thirty  feet  wide, 
and  only  five  or  six  high.  The  loam  on  this  floor  is  stuff- 
ed full  of  teeth  and  jaw  bones.  Near  the  entrance  to  it,  is 
a  gulf  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  wide,  into  which  visitors 
descend  by  a  ladder.  After  going  down,  they  arrive  at  a 
vault  fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  by  thirty  in  height ;  and  on 
the  side  on  which  they  descend,  is  a  grotto  all  bestrewed 
with  bones.  By  going  down  a  little  further  still,  they  fall 
in  with  a  new  arcade,  which  conducts  to  a  grotto  forty  feet 
long,  and  a  new  gulf  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  deep.  Even 
after  this  descent,  another  cavern  presents  itself,  forty  feet 
high,  quite  covered  with  bones.  A  passage  now,  of  five 
by  seven  feet,  leads  to  a  grotto,  twenty-five  feet  long,  and 
twelve  wide ;  then  an  alley  twenty  feet  long,  conducts  into 
another  cave,  twenty  feet  high,  and  finally,  a  grand  grotto 
expands,  eighty-three  feet  in  width,  and  twenty-four  in 
height,  more  copiously  furnished  with  bones  than  any  of 
the  rest.  The  sixth  and  last  grotto  runs  in  a  northerly  di- 
rection, so  that  the  whole  series  of  caverns  and  corridors 
describes  nearly  a  semicircle. 

A  rift  in  the  third  grotto,  disclosed  in  1784  a  new  grot- 
to, fifteen  feet  long  by  four  wide,  where  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  hyenas'  and  lions'  bones  were  found.  The  opening 
was  much  too  narrow  to  have  allowed  these  animals  to 
have  entered  it.  A  peculiar  tunnel  which  terminated  in 
this  grotto,  afforded  an  incredible  number  of  bones,  and 
large  skulls,  quite  entire. 

The  excavation  on  the  extreme  right  and  lowest  part  of 
the  figure,  does  not  form  a  part  of  the  original  cavern,  but 
has  been  sunk  for  the  purpose  of  finding  bones.  Several 
cavities  have  been  dug  in  different  directions  from  this 
well,  for  the  same  purpose,  in  one  of  which  there  is,  in  the 
cut,  the  figure  of  a  man  holding  a  torch. 

"  The  cavern  of  Gaylenreuth  is  one,"  says  Dr.  Ure, 
"whose  bony  relics  are  best  known,  in  consequence  of  the 
researches  which  have  been  so  long  carried  on  with  regard 
to  them  by  men  of  eminent  science,  such  as  Esper,  Hum- 
boldt,  Eb'el  of  Bremen,  Rosenmueller,  Goldfuss,  &c.,  as 
well  as  by  the  rich  collections  which  these  researches  have 
furnished. 

These  collections  have  been  examined  by  that  great  fos- 
silist,  Baron  Cuvier,  who  has  ascertained  that  the  bones 


BONE    CAVERNS.  271 

composing  them,  belong  in  the  proportion  of  three-fourths 
to  bears,  and  that  next  to  these  in  numbers,  were  the  bones 
of  hyems,  foxes,  wolves,  gluttons,  and  polecats.  A  few, 
only,  of  the  remains  of  the  feline  tribe,  have  been  found 
in  this  cave,  and  still  more  few,  of  those  of  the  elephant 
tribe." 

Near  this  cavern  are  several  others.  One  called  Hole- 
berg,  or  hollow  mountain,  has  eight  or  ten  grottoes,  forming, 
a  suit  of  apartments  two  hundred  feet  in  length,  with  two 
outlets.  Another  called  Wonder  hole,  has  a  circuit  of 
one  hundred  and  sixty  feet,  and  still  another  called  Klaus- 
tein,  is  composed  of  four  grottoes,  and  is  two  hundred  feet 
deep.  In  all  these,  more  or  less  bones  have  been  found. 
The  rocks  in  which  they  are  situated  are  of  limestone,  like 
that  of  Kirkdale,  and  indeed  like  those  of  all  other  caverns 
of  a  similar  description. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  facts  developed,  by  the  ex- 
amination of  these  caverns,  and  others  which  we  have  no 
room  to  describe,  is,  that  they  all,  with  an  exception  or 
two,  contain  the  bones  of  the  same  species  of  bear,  and  in 
a  similar  proportion  to  the  other  bones.  This  has  been 
found  to  be  the  case,  even  to  the  extent  of  more  than  five 
hundred  miles,  at  which  distance,  some  of  these  caves  are 
situated  from  the  others.  The  exceptions  to  this  general 
fact  exists  in  two  or  three  caves,  situated  in  England,  which 
contain  a  preponderance  of  hyenas'  bones. 

How  are  toe  to  account  for  the  existence  of  so  many 
bones,  and  of  all  kinds  of  animals  in  these  caverns  ?  One 
of  the  most  natural  questions  which  would  occur  to  the 
mind,  after  having  read  the  above  account,  would  be  how 
these  bones  came  into  these  caverns.  The  solution  of  this 
question  is  attended  with  doubts  and  difficulties. 

"  It  is  scarcely  possible,"  says  Cuvier,  "  to  imagine  any 
other  than  the  three  following  general  causes,  that  can 
have  placed  these  bones  in  such  quantities  in  these  cav- 
erns. First,  they  are  either  the  remains  of  animals  which 
dwelt  and  died  peaceably  in  these  chambers ;  or,  Second, 
of  animals  which  inundations  and  other  violent  causes 
carried  in  ;  or,  Third,  of  the  animals  which  had  been 
enveloped  in  the  stony  strata,  whose  watery  solution  pro- 
duced the  caverns  themselves,  but  the  soft  parts  were  dis- 
solved away  by  the  agent  that  scooped  out  the  mineral 
substance  of  the  caves." 


272  BONE    CAVERNS. 

The  last  hypothesis  is  refuted  by  the  circumstance,  that 
the  strata  themselves,  in  which  the  grottoes  are  excavated, 
contain  no  bones ;  and  the  second,  by  the  entire  state  of 
preservation  of  the  smallest  prominences  of  the  bones, 
which  precludes  the  idea  of  their  having  been  rolled  or 
transported  from  a  distance.  We  are,  therefore,  says  Cu- 
vier,  obliged  to  return  from  these  to  the  first  cause,  what- 
ever difficulties  may  attend  it. 

The  vast  number  of  bones  which  some  of  these  caverns 
contain  at  the  present  time,  together  with  the  dust  of  those 
which  have  decayed,  would  pre-suppose  that  a  vast  period 
of  time  must  have  elapsed  since  these  houses  of  death  were 
first  inhabited,  if  indeed,  these  remains  belong  to  such 
animals  only,  as  "  had  lived  and  died  peaceably  in  these 
chambers,"  as  Cuvier  supposes. 

Dr.  Buckland  supposes  that  the  contents  of  these  cav- 
erns are  due  to  two  causes,  viz.,  to  the  deaths  of  the  prowl- 
ing animals  which  inhabited  them,  and  to  the  bones  of 
other  animals  which  these,  brought  home  for  food,  and 
this,  without  doubt,  is  the  true  theory.  The  elephants 
and  other  large  animals,  the  bones  of  which  are  found  in 
these  caves,  do  not  inhabit  caverns;  and  if  they  did,  the 
entrances  are  often  too  small  to  admit  them  while  alive. 
Such  bones  most  clearly  must  have  been  conveyed  to  such 
places  after  they  had  separated,  by  the  decomposition  of 
the  soft  parts,  and  there  is,  perhaps,  the  best  reasons  for 
believing  that  these,  and  perhaps  a  great  proportion  of 
the  other  bones  found  in  the  caves,  were  carried  there  by 
the  hyenas  and  other  beasts  of  prey.  We  think  that  the 
facts  and  arguments  adduced  by  Professor  Buckland, 
are  sufficient  to  convince  any  impartial  reader,  that  this 
was  the  mode  of  their  transportation  into  these  houses  of 
death. 

The  immense  quantities  of  organic  relics,  which  have 
been  deposited  in  some  of  these  caverns,  may  be,  in  a  de- 
gree, conceived  of  by  the  following  facts. 

"  In  this  cavern,"  (of  Kullock,)  says  Professor  Buck- 
land,  "  the  size  and  proportions  of  which  are  nearly  equal 
to  those  of  the  interior  of  a  large  church,  there  are  hun- 
dreds of  cart  loads  of  black  animal  dust,  entirely  covering 
the  whole  floor.  The  quantity  of  animal  matter  accumu- 
lated, on  this  floor,  is  the  most  surprising,  and  the  only 
thing  of  the  kind  I  ever  witnessed;  and  many  hundred,  I 
may  say  thousand,  individuals  must  have  contributed  to 


OSSEOUS  BRECCIAS.  273 

make  up  this  appalling  mass  of  the  dust  of  death." — Re- 
liq.  Diluv.  p.  138. 

Of  the  same  cave,  Cuvier  says,  "  I  have  stated  that  the 
total  quantity  of  animal  matter  that  lies  within  this  cavern, 
cannot  be  computed  at  less  than  5000  cubic  feet;  now,  al- 
lowing two  cubic  feet  of  dust  and  bones  for  each  individual 
animal,  we  shall  have,  in  this  single  vault,  the  remains  of 
at  least  2500  bears."  We  should  think  that  a  single  cu- 
bic foot  of  dust  is  more  than  ought  to  be  allowed  to  each 
bear. 

We  have  already  stated,  at  considerable  length,  under 
the  article  "  Change  of  Climate,"  the  reasons  of  Dr. 
Buckland,  for  believing  that  these  caverns  were  the  dens 
of  hyenas,  and  that  the  multitude  of  bones  found  in  them 
were  carried  there  by  these  animals.  To  that  article 
we  must,  therefore,  refer  the  reader  for  the  sequel  of  this 
subject. 


OSSEOUS  BRECCIAS. 

Breccia,  in  Mineralogy,  is  a  rock  composed  of  angular 
fragments  of  other  rocks,  joined  together  by  some  kind  of 
cement.  In  osseous  breccia,  bones  take  the  place  of  the 
angular  pieces  of  stone. 

Osseous,  or  bone  breccias,  are  found  in  many  places  on 
the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  as  at  Gibraltar,  Cette, 
Antibes,  Nice,  Pisa,  Corsica,  &c.  These  are  found  filling 
up  the  fissures  of  calcareous  rocks.  It  is  a  curious  fact, 
that  in  all  these  places,  as  well  as  in  Sicily,  Dalmatia,  and 
Cerigo,  though  so  distant  from  each  other,  these  conglom- 
erated fragments  of  bone  are  similar,  and  appear  to  have 
belonged  to  the  same  animals.  They  are  the  relics  chiefly 
of  ruminant  animals,  such  as  the  deer,  mixed  with  a  few 
lions'  teeth,  panthers'  teeth,  and  sometimes  the  bones  of 
rats,  and  occasionally  those  of  other  animals.  The  pieces 
of  bone  are  impasted  in  a  red  earthy  concretion,  resem- 
bling highly  burned  bricks,  but  spongy  in  texture,  from  in- 
numerable porous  cavities,  of  various  sizes,  and  which  are 
occasionally  interspersed  with  starry  incrustations.  As 
the  bones  are  not  pressed  together,  it  is  reasonable  to  sup- 
pose, that  the  cement  which  contains  them,  must  have  been 
progressively  deposited  around  them  as  they  fell  into  the 


274  OSSEOUS  BRECCIAS. 

rifts  of  the  rocks.  The  bones  have,  in  general,  been  bro- 
ken in  pieces  before  receiving  their  crust  of  spar,  or  their 
cement.  They  are  entirely  separated  from  their  organic 
arrangement,  but  exhibit  no  signs  of  having  been  rolled 
or  transported. 

The  stony  fragments  which  this  breccia  sometimes  em- 
braces, are  coarse  grained  limestone,  of  a  dark  gray  color, 
containing  now  and  then  veins  of  white  spar,  and  appear 
to  have  been  rolled.  In  size,  they  vary  from  that  of  the 
fist,  to  small  grains. 

These  bones  do  not  belong  to  any  existing  species  of 
animals.  In  the  bone  rock  of  Gibraltar,  Cuvier  found 
one  species  of  deer,  and  another  of  hare,  both  unknown 
species. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  be  more  particular  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  these  breccias,  as  they  occur  at  different  places, 
having  already  observed,  that  they  all  bear  a  similar  char- 
acter. 

The  breccia  of  Dalmatia  is  the  most  extensive  of  any 
which  has  been  discovered;  stretching  along  the  whole 
coast  of  that  country.  Its  structure  and  aspect  is  the  same 
as  that  of  Gibraltar. 

With  respect  to  the  origin  of  these  bone  rocks,  Dr. 
Buckland  supposes  that  the  bones  of  the  extinct  species  are 
those  of  animals  which  fell  into  the  crevices  of  the  rocks 
before  the  flood,  and  perished  there.  The  same  author  has 
shown  that  the  red  cement  of  the  osseous  breccia  is  an 
earthy  loam,  differing  merely  in  color  from  that  which 
fills  the  caves  and  fissures  of  rocks  in  Germany,  and  con- 
stitutes the  diluvial  loam  on  their  bottoms. 

It  appears  that  something  analogous  to  this  breccia,  is 
still  forming  in  different  places.  At  the  extremity  of 
Prince's  Lines,  high  in  the  rock  which  looks  towards 
Spain,  is  found  a  reddish  calcareous  earth,  and  the  bones 
of  small  birds  cemented  thereby.  The  rock  around  this 
spot,  is  inhabited  by  a  number  of  hawks,  that  in  the  breed- 
ing season  nestle  there  and  rear  their  young;  and  the  bones 
in  this  concretion,  are  probably  the  remains  of  the  food  of 
these  birds.  At  the  base  of  the  rock,  below  King's  Lines, 
the  concretion  consists  of  pebbles  of  the  prevailing  calca- 
reous rock.  In  this  concretion,  at  a  considerable  depth  un- 
der the  surface,  was  found  part  of  a  green  glass  bottle. — 
Ed.  Phil  Trans. 

It  will  be  observed  that  these  breccias  are  peculiar  to 


FOSSIL  HUMAN  BONES.  275 

limestone  rocks.  Now,  lime  is  known  to  be  soluble  in 
water,  in  small  quantities,  and  hence  the  calcareous  spar 
with  which  these  bones  are  often  surrounded  and  impreg- 
nated, is  readily  accounted  for.  The  soil,  or  cement,  which 
holds  these  bones  together,  is  also  hardened  by  the  infil- 
tration of  the  same  substance. 

Osseous  Breccia  of  Australia.  This  has  been  recently 
discovered.  From  a  communication  of  Major  Mitchel  to 
the  London  Geological  Society,  it  appears  that  this  breccia 
bears  a  great  resemblance  to  that  of  Europe.  The  princi- 
pal cavity  where  it  occurs,  is  an  irregular  kind  of  well,  or 
natural  fissure,  accessible  only  by  means  of  ladders  and 
ropes,  and  the  breccia  is  a  mixture  of  limestone  fragments 
of  various  sizes,  and  bones  enveloped  in  an  earthy  red 
salcareous  stone.  But  this  differs  from  the  breccias  of  the 
Mediterranean  coast,  in  this  important  particular,  that  the 
bones  of  which  it  is  chiefly  formed,  are  those  of  the  kan- 
garoo, wombat,  and  other  animals,  which  are  still  living 
in  that  country.  The  bones  of  the  elephant,  and  also  of 
some  species  of  other  animals  not  known  to  exist,  are  oc- 
casionally found  with  the  others,  but  the  principal  parts 
are  composed  of  bones  of  living  species.  It  was  therefore 
probably  formed  at  a  more  recent  period  than  the  breccia 
of  the  Mediterranean. 


FOSSIL  HUMAN  BONES. 

Cuvier,  and  other  geologists,  have  expressly  declared, 
that  no  fossil  human  bones  have  ever  yet  been  found,  nor 
have  any  bones  of  the  quadrumanous,  or  monkey  tribe 
ever  been  detected.  "It  is  wonderful,"  says  he,  "that 
among  all  these  mammifera,  of  which,  at  the  present  day, 
the  greater  part  have  a  congenerate  species,  in  warm  cli- 
mates, there  has  not  been  found  one  quadrumanous  ani- 
mal ;  not  a  single  bone,  or  a  single  tooth  of  a  monkey;  not 
even  a  bone,  or  a  tooth  of  an  extinct  species  of  this  ani- 
mal, has  ever  been  detected. 

"  Neither  is  there  any  remains  of  man.  All  the  bones 
of  the  human  race  which  have  been  collected,  along  with 
those  which  we  have  spoken  of,  have  been  the  result  of 
accident,  and  besides,  their  number  is  extremely  small, 


276  FOSSIL  HUMAN  BONES. 

which  it  certainly  would  not  be,  if  rnen  had  been  estab- 
lished in  the  countries  inhabited  by  these  animals.  Where 
then  was  the  human  race?  Did  the  last  and  most  perfect 
work  of  the  Creator  exist  nowhere?  Did  the  animals 
which  now  accompany  him  on  the  earth,  and  of  which 
there  are  no  fossil  remains  to  be  found,  surround  him? 
Have  the  lands  in  which  they  lived  together,  been  swal- 
lowed up,  when  those  which  they  now  inhabit,  and  of 
which  a  great  inundation  might  have  destroyed  the  an- 
terior population,  were  again  left  dry?"  "  To  these  ques- 
tions," says  Cuvier,  "the  study  of  fossils  gives  us  no  in- 
formation." 

One  might  be  led  to  suppose,  from  the  above  language 
of  the  great  fossilist,  that  every  part  of  the  earth  had  al- 
ready been  explored,  and  the  question  concerning  fossil 
human  bones,  that  is,  the  existence  of  human  antediluvian 
relics,  had  been  finally  settled. 

"But,"  says  Granville  Penn,  "the  great  question  con- 
cerning human  remains  in  a  fossil  state,  stands  now  be- 
fore the  world  under  a  new  aspect,  and  entirely  different 
from  that  under  which  it  stood  at  the  period  when  M.  Cu- 
vier first  published  his  celebrated  '  Theory  of  the  Earth}  " 

This  new  aspect  is  to  be  dated  from  about  the  year  1820, 
when  the  cavern  of  Durfort,  and  the  quarries  of  Kosritz, 
were  laid  open  for  the  instruction  of  science. 

Cavern  of  Durfort.  The  cavern  of  Durfort  is  near 
a  small  village  of  that  name,  in  the  Department  du  Gard, 
France.  It  is  about  300  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. Its  orifice  presents  itself  in  a  vertical  fissure, 
or  crevice,  in  the  surface  of  the  ground,  about  five  feet  in 
length,  and  one  and  a  half  feet  in  width.  The  descent  is 
perpendicular,  about  twenty  feet,  and  must  be  made  by 
pressing  with  the  back  and  knees  against  the  rugged 
sides,  in  the  manner  of  chimney  sweepers.  From  thence 
you  enter  into  a  narrow  passage,  which,  as  it  extends, 
divides  itself  to  the  right  and  left.  These  two  passages 
are  both  so  low  as  to  make  it  difficult  for  a  person  to 
penetrate  through  them.  The  one  on  the  right  leads  to 
the  principal  chamber,  the  dimensions  of  which  are  only 
ten  or  twelve  feet  in  length,  and  three  in  height  and 
width.  The  passage  on  the  left  is  pursued  with  still 
greater  difficulty,  being  considerably  lower.  No  bones 
are  found  in  either  of  these  passages,  but  the  cave  is  ter- 


FOSSIL    HUMAN    BONES.  277 

initiated  by  a  small  chamber,  three  yards  square,  in  which 
all  the  human  bones  are  found.  They  lie  in  the  utmost 
confusion,  in  the  paste  or  matter  that  unites  them,  and 
are  in  quantities  so  great  as  to  form  more  than  half  of  the 
bed.  The  bones  are  partly  filled  with  an  extremely  fine 
calcareous  earth,  colored  by  oxide  of  iron.  The,  deposite 
is  here  raised  more  than  a  half  a  foot  above  the  true  floor, 
which  is  covered  with  human  bones,  some  of  which  are 
insulated  from  the  rest ;  a  great  number  are  united  to  the 
rock,  to  which  they  have  been  fixed  by  calcareous  incrus- 
tations. The  bones  are  chiefly  those  of  the  head,  thigh, 
and  arms.  They  lie  without  any  relation  to  the  system, 
and  many  are  wanting,  so  that  an  entire  skeleton,  has 
never  been  found.  They  are  not  worn,  or  rolled,  so  that 
they  could  not  have  been  transported  from  a  distance. 
They  are  not  mineralized,  but  retain  a  portion  of  gelatine. 
These  bones  belonged  to  adults  both  of  men  and  women, 
and  some  of  them  to  children. 

How  these  human  bones  came  in  such  a  place  is  the 
main  question,  and  its  answer  is  bv  no  means  easy.  M. 
de  Serres,  the 'author  of  the  above  description,  says  that 
the  difficulty  of  the  entrance  would  have  opposed  an  in- 
vincible obstacle  to  the  introduction  of  the  bodies  after 
death.  The  people  of  the  country  have  a  tradition,  that 
at  some  remote  and  unknown  period,  these  bones  were 
brought  from  a  distance  and  deposited  there. 

Mr.  Granville  Penn  has  no  doubt  but  these  are  ante- 
deluvian  bones,  and  thinks  there  is  as  much  reason  to 
believe  them  so,  as  there  is  in  the  case  of  the  elephants' 
bones  in  the  cave  of  Kirkdale.  "It  will  be  plain,"  says 
this  author,  "  to  every  one  who  compares  the  descriptions 
of  the  two  caves,  that  the  leading  circumstances,  geo- 
logically considered,  are  so  peculiarly  analogous,  that  if 
we  read,  in  the  Durfort  account,  '  young  and  full  grown 
elephants?  &c.  instead  of  '  young  and  adult  human  sub- 
jects,' we  shall  almost  seem  to  be  reading  the  Kirkdale 
report." 

Unless  there  is  some  other  entrance  than  that  already 
described,  (and  after  much  search,  none  has  been  found,) 
it  is  difficult  to  imagine  how  these  bones  could  have  been 
conveyed  into  such  a  cavern,  and  for  what  purpose.  It 
is  much  easier  to  believe,  did  many  such  examples  exist, 
that  they  were  imbedded  during  the.  formation  of  the  lime- 
stone rock,  in  which  they  are  found,  than  that  they  were 
24 


278  FOSSIL    HUMAN    BONES. 

conveyed  there  by  human  hands.  As  these  bones  exhibit 
no  marks  of  teeth,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  they 
were  carried  there  by  rapacious  beasts.  PeniUs  Comp. 
Estimate. — Vol.  ii.  p.  400. 

The  Quarries  of  Kosrilz,  where  other  human  bones 
have  been  also  found,  are  in  Upper  Saxony,  and  the  ac- 
count is  given  by  Baron  Von  Schlottheim.  The  forma- 
tion is  of  limestone,  accompanied  by  secondary  gypsum. 
In  the  fissures  or  cavities  of  the  limestone,  have  been  found 
the  remains  of  the  antediluvian  rhinoceros  and  hyena,  and 
other  extinct  species.  In  the  fissures  or  cavities  of  the 
subordinate  gypsum,  human  bones  have  been  found,  to- 
gether with  the  bones  of  small  quadrupeds  and  birds,  at 
the  depth  of  from  sixteen  to  thirty  feet  below  the  surface. 
These  occur  in  every  quarry  which  has  been  opened,  and 
not  in  caverns,  but  in  the  loam,  which  has  formed  there, 
and  such  as  envelops  the  bodies  of  Gaylenreuth.  The 
Baron  supposes  that  the  human  bones  are  not,  however, 
of  the  same  antiquity  with  those  of  the  antediluvian  an- 
imals, with  which  they  occur.  Still  the  Baron  says,  "  It 
is  quite  evident,  that  in  the  country  near  Kosritz,  human 
bones  are  found  intermingled,  without  order,  \vith  the 
bones  of  animals  of  the  ancient  world,  and  with  those  of 
existing  species;  and  under  precisely  the  same  circumstan- 
ces, being  firmly  enveloped  and  compacted  in  the  loamy 
deposite,  which  occupies  the  fissures  and  cavities  of  the 
bed  of  gypsum  that  occurs  in  that  vicinity.  All  these 
considerations  give,  on  the  first  view,  a  probability  to  the 
conclusion,  that  the  other  animals  were  destroyed  at  the 
same  time  with  man;  an  opinion  which  I  have  already 
advanced." 

M.  V.  Schlottheim,  afterwards  became  doubtful  of  the 
accuracy  of  this  conclusion  from  the  single  circumstance, 
that  remains  of  existing  as  well  as  of  extinct  animal  spe- 
cies, Avere  found  with  the  human  bones. 

Had  the  Baron  seen  Professor  Buckland's  account  of 
the  Kirkdale  cavern,  which  was  printed  afterwards,  this 
circumstance  alone,  probably  would  not  have  raised  a 
doubt,  since  there  were  found  both  extinct  and  existing 
species  mingled  together,  and  yet  no  doubt  has  arisen  that 
they  were  not  all  antediluvian. 

These  facts  and  circumstances,  in  the  opinions  of  seve- 
ral able  geologists,  leave  little  or  no  doubt  but  those  bones 


FOSSIL  HUMAN  BONES.  279 

were  real  fossils,  and  that  they  belong  to  a  period  before 
the  flood,  while  others  think  the  evidence  not  sufficient  to 
establish  so  important  a  geological  fact.  The  inquiring 
reader  will  find  this  subject  fully  discussed  in  "  Penn's 
Comparative  Estimate  of  the  Mineral  and  Mosaical  Geolo- 
gy," vol.  ii. 

Professor  Buckland  also  found  human  bones,  in  the 
same  caves  with  those  of  antediluvian  animals,  and  yet 
he  seems  to  suppose  that  the  former  were  much  less  an- 
cient than  the  latter,  the  human  bones  having  fallen  in 
through  some  crevice,  formerly  open,  but  now  closed. 
Although  a  strong  advocate  of  the  truth  of  the  Mosaic 
history,  he  denies  the  existence  of  fossil  human  remains, 
though,  had  the  bones  of  some  species,  considered  extinct, 
been  found  under  the  same  circumstances,  no  doubt  it  is 
believed,  would  have  been  entertained  of  their  antedilu- 
vian origin.  This  reluctance  to  admit  their  discovery 
and  existence,  appears  extraordinary  and  unaccountable  in 
an  advocate  for  the  truth  of  the  Scriptures,  since,  if  men 
and  animals  were  created  within  a  few  days  of  each  other, 
their  remains  ought  to  be  found  together.  "  It  is  said," 
says  Dr.  Macculloch,  "  to  be  a  proof  of  the  especially  re- 
cent formation  of  man,  that  his  remains  are  not  found  in 
the  same  alluvia  as  those  of  other  animals.  What  sup- 
port of  Scripture  is  this  ?  That  record  says,  man  and 
animals  were  created  in  one  short  period.  If  they  ought 
thus  equally  to  be  found,  and  are  not,  it  is  evidence 
against  the  record,  and  not  in  its  favor." — Geology,  vol.  i. 
p.  451. 

In  what  manner  bones  might  be  thrown  into  caverns. — 
Perhaps  every  limestone  country  contains  more  or  less 
subterranean  caverns,  which  admit  streams  of  water  to  pass 
through  them,  either  constantly,  or  duriug  certain  seasons 
of  the  year. 

In  the  Grecian  Morea,  it  appears,  that  such  caverns  are 
common,  and  during  the  late  French  expedition  to  Greece, 
they  were  particularly  examined  and  described  by  M.  Bo- 
blaye,  one  of  the  adventurers. 

In  that  country  the  seasons  are  divided  into  the  dry  and 
rainy,  with  nearly  the  same  exactness  that  they  are  bet  ween 
the  tropics.  The  rainy  season  lasts  four  months,  and  13 
succeeded  by  eight  months  of  drought. 


280  FOSSIL  HUMAN   BONES. 

In  the  elevated  districts  of  the  Morea,  there  are  many 
deep  valleys  or  basins,  surrounded  on  every  side  by  moun- 
tains of  cavernous  limestone. 

During  the  rainy  season,  the  torrents  from  the  moun- 
tains, rushing  into  these  basins,  would  form  lakes  in  ordi- 
nary circumstances ;  but  here  the  water  is  received  into 
fissures  or  caverns,  called  by  the  Greeks  "  katavothra," 
and  which  lead  to  subterraneous  caves  of  various  dimen- 
sions below. 

In  some  of  the  basins,  the  apertures  not  being  sufficient 
to  receive  all  the  water  as  it  descends,  lakes  are  formed, 
which  either  gradually  run  off  at  these  apertures,  or  find 
other  openings  at  a  higher  level. 

In  some  places  where  the  water  descends  through  fis- 
sures in  the  bottom  of  the  basin,  which  is  often  in  the  mid- 
dle of  a  plain,  nothing  can  be  seen  in  the  summer,  when 
the  lake  is  dry,  but  a  deposite  of  red  mud  cracked  by  the 
heat  of  the  sun  in  all  directions;  but  more  commonly 
the  receiving  chasm  is  at  the  foot  of  the  surrounding  es- 
carpment, and  is  sometimes  large  enough  to  allow  a  per- 
son to  enter  it  in  the  dry  season,  and  to  penetrate  far  into 
the  interior.  Within  are  often  found  a  suite  of  caverns  or 
chambers,  communicating  with  each  other  by  narrow  pas- 
sages, as  is  the  case  with  similar  caves  in  this  and  other 
countries.  In  one  of  these  entrances  were  observed  hu- 
man bones  imbedded  in  recent  red  mud,  and  mingled  with 
the  remains  of  plants  and  animals  now  inhabiting  the  Morea. 

In  summer  these  mouths  being  half  closed  with  alluvial 
mud,  produce  a  rapid  and  vigorous  vegetation,  which  is 
cherished  by  the  moisture  of  such  places.  They  then  be- 
come the  favorite  hiding  places  of  jackals  and  foxes,  so 
that  at  one  season  of  the  year,  the  same  cavity  serves  for 
the  den  of  carnivorous  beasts,  and  at  another,  the  chamber 
of  an  ingulfed  river. 

Near  the  mouth  of  another  of  these  caverns,  M.  Boblaye 
and  his  companions  saw  the  carcass  of  a  horse  partly  de- 
voured by  jackals,  the  size  of  which  prevented  these  ani- 
mals from  dragging  it  in  ;  but  it  was  evident  that  the  ensuing 
flood  would  float  in  whatever  remained  of  the  skeleton. 

Some  of  these  torrents  form  subterranean  rivers,  af- 
ter running  many  miles  come  again  to  the  surface;  and 
although  the  waters  are  exceedingly  turbid  when  they 
are  ingulfed,  the  emerging  stream  is  perfectly  clear  and 


FOSSIL    HITMAN    BONES. 


281 


limpid,  the  impurities  subsiding  during  the  underground 
passage.  The  points  of  emergence  are  usually  along  the 
sea  shore  of  the  Morea,  but  sometimes  they  are  subma- 
rine, and  at  some  distance  from  the  shore.  When  this  is 
the  case,  the  force  with  which  the  fresh  water  rises  under 
the  salt,  is  sometimes  such  as  in  calm  weather,  to  form 
large  convex  waves,  the  sand  at  the  same  time  boiling  up 
to  a  considerable  distance  from  the  bottom. — Lyell. 

During  the  dry  season,  the  sea,  undoubtedly,  takes  the 
place  of  the  fresh  water,  carrying  in  marine  shells  and 
sand,  to  mingle  with  the  bones  and  mud  brought  down 
from  the  land ;  thus  forming  a  mixture  of  fresh,  and  salt 
wates  remains. 

Should  the  Morea  be  elevated  by  a  subterranean  force, 
and  these  places  exposed  to  the  investigations  of  geolo- 
gists, there  would  probably  be  exhibited  the  same  phe- 
nomena that  has  so  puzzled  the  naturalists  of  the  present 
day ; — a  congregation  of  mammiferous  bones,  clay,  sea 
sand,  marine  and  land  shells,  and  the  whole,  perhaps,  in- 
terspersed with  human  bones. 

From  what  we  have  here  stated,  it  may  be  seen  that  in 
the  course  of  centuries,  large  quantities  of  the  bones  of 
quadrupeds  and  of  men,  may  be  carried  into  caverns,  and 
there  mingled  promiscuously :  and  probably  also  inter- 
mixed Avith  marine  productions.  And  as  in  limestone 
countries  these  caverns  are  constantly  filling  up  with  sta- 
lactites, and  carbonaceous  matter  brought  in  with  the  water, 
the  wonder  with  respect  to  the  ingress  of  organic  relics 
into  certain  caverns,  would  seem  thus  in  a  degree  to  be 
explained. 

Lake  Cirknitzersee.  The  fact  stated  above,  that  there 
is  a  spot  on  the  Morea,  where  at  one  season  of  the  year 
the  same  cavity  serves  for  the  den  of  carnivorous  beasts 
and  at  another  for  the  channel  of  an  ingulfed  river, 
brought  to  mind  a  still  more  singular  natural  curiosity,  of 
somewhat  the  same  kind,  as  stated  by  the  old  traveller, 
Keysler,  which  we  had  heretofore  believed  was  rather 
fabulous  than  true.  Keysler,  however,  was  F.  R.  S.  of 
London,  and  one  of  the  most  able  antiquarians  of  his  time. 

"  The  Lake  Cirknitzersee,"  says  he,  "  situated  in  the 

south-east  part  of  Austria,  is  one  of  the  greatest  of  natural 

curiosities,  and  has  been  the  subject  of  many  disquisitions 

of  naturalists.     It  is  a  common  proverb,  that  one  may 

24* 


282  FOSSIL    HUMAN    BONES. 

sow,  reap,  hunt,  and  fish,  in  the  Cirknitzersee,  within  the 
space  of  a  single  year.  But  what  is  truly  wonderful  in 
this  lake,  is  the  manner  in  which  it  ebbs  and  flows.  The 
former  happens  during  a  long  drought,  whether  in  sum- 
mer or  in  winter,  and  the  ebbing  continues,  commonly  for 
about  five  and  twenty  days.  The  water  during  this  time, 
is  absorbed  by  eighteen  holes  or  cavities,  resembling 
whirlpools,  in  the  bottom  of  the  lake.  The  water  seems 
to  rush  through  a  crust  of  the  earth  into  a  cavern  below. 
The  cavities  have  each  a  particular  name  and  period  of 
time  when  they  cease  to  absorb  water.  These  periods 
differ,  probably  according  to  their  different  elevations 
above  the  lowest  surface  of  the  ground.  One  cea*es  in 
five  days,  one  in  ten,  one  in  fifteen,  and  so  on,  until  the 
end  of  about  twenty-five  days,  when  the  lake  is  entirely 
dry.  Instances  have  been  known  of  its  having  dried  up 
three  times  in  the  year.  When  great  quantities  of  rain 
fall,  this  lake  is  again  filled  by  the  same  cavities  which 
absorbed  its  waters.  If  the  rain  continues,  and  especially 
if  attended  with  claps  of  thunder,  the  water  issues  out  of 
these  holes  with  great  impetuosity,  rising  two  or  three 
fathoms  above  the  surface.  Some  of  the  cavities  only  ab- 
sorb, but  do  not  eject  the  water,  while  others  both  absorb 
and  eject,  as  the  lake  ebbs  or  flows. 

Notwithstanding  the  lake  becomes  absolutely  dry,  and 
nothing  remains  alive  in  it,  yet  as  soon  as  it  begins  again 
to  flow,  great  quantities  of  excellent  fish,  of  different  kinds, 
some  weighing  fifty  pounds,  are  taken  in  it ;  a  convincing 
proof  that  the  reservoir  which  supplies  it  with  water  is 
well  stocked  with  fish.  But  the  most  extraordinary  fact 
is,  that  ducks  also  are  ejected  with  the  water,  many  of 
them  being  seen  to  rise  from  two  of  the  cavities  in  par- 
ticular. They  are  of  a  black  color,  blind,  and  almost  des- 
titute of  feathers,  but  they  are  fat,  and  in  about  a  fort- 
night's time,  become  fully  fledged,  receive  their  sight,  and 
fly  away."  Keysler's  Travels  through  Germany,  &c., 
translated  from  the  German,  and  published  in  London, 
1756,  vol.  iv.  p.  213. 


FOSSIL    REMAINS    OF    PLANTS    AND    SHELLS. 

It  has  been  supposed,  by  some  naturalists,  that  there 


.USS1L    REMAINS   OF    PLANTS    AND    SHELLS.       283 

was  a  gradual  and  progressive  development  in  the  or- 
ganization of  created  beings,  from  the  most  simple  to  the 
most  perfect  and  complex ;  and  in  proof  of  this  doctrine, 
it  has  been  shown  l.iat  in  the  strata  of  the  earth,  the 
lowest  orders  occur  first,  or  are  situated  at  the  greatest 
depth,  over  which  occur  those  that  are  less  simple,  being 
created  afterwards,  and  so  on  progressively,  to  the  most 
perfect  or  complex,  which  are  found  only  near  the  sur- 
face. 

It  is  true,  indeed,  that  plants  were  created  before  ani- 
mals, and  that  the  inferior  animals  were  formed'  before  the 
more  intelligent ;  and  it  is  also  true,  that,  in  this  respect, 
the  discoveries  of  geology  harmonize  most  perfectly  with 
the  order  of  creation  as  recorded  by  Moses ;  the  several 
creations,  with  respect  to  time,  coinciding  entirely  with 
the  successive  order  in  which  their  remains  are  found  in 
the  earth.  But  it  will  be  shown  in  the  sequel,  that  the 
general  fact  of  the  lower  orders  being  found  in  the  deep- 
est strata,  proves  nothing  with  respect  to  the  progressive 
improvement  of  organized  beings,  because  in  many  in- 
stances, animals  of  a  more  simple  structure  are  found 
above  the  more  complicated.  This  is  particularly  the  case, 
with  several  species  of  shells,  some  of  the  most  curious 
and  complex  kinds  being  found  in  the  deepest  strata, 
and  far  below  those  of  a  more  simple  structure.  This 
fact,  while  it  takes  nothing  from  the  coincidence  which 
exists  between  the  scripture  narrative  of  the  creation  and 
the  discoveries  of  geology,  destroys  at  once  the  doctrine 
of  the  gradual  development  of  organic  life,  since  the  very 
basis  of  this  doctrine  supposes  an  uninterrupted  progress 
from  the  most  simple  structure,  towards  that  of  the  greatest 
complexity. 

Plants  of  the  lower  orders,  and  many  of  them  entirely 
different  in  structure  and  species  from  any  now  existing, 
have  been  discovered  in  situations,  which  not  only  indi- 
cate, from  the  nature  of  the  rocks  in  which  they  occur, 
their  great  antiquity,  but  also  that  they  were  imbedded 
at  a  time  anterior  to  the  existence  of  any  other  organized 
substances. 

Next  to  the  plants,  and  above  them  in  the  order  and 
succession  of  strata,  occur  shells  of  various  kinds,  and 
next  above  these  are  found  the  remains  of  reptiles,  fish, 
birds,  &c.,  and  still  nearer  the  surface,  the  bones  of  quad- 
rupeds. But  we  will  not  here  anticipate  a  subject  to 


284  FOSSIL    PLANTS. 

which  a  section  will  be  devoted  at  the  close  of  this  vol- 
ume. 


FOSSIL    PLANTS. 


Fossil  botany  has  within  a  few  years,  been  studied  with 
much  ardor  and  considerable  success.  Most  of  the  plants 
discovered  in  deep  strata,  and  which  have  been  attributed 
to  a  period  before  the  deluge,  are  of  the  cryptogamous* 
and  monocotyledonousf  tribes.  These  occur  chiefly  in 
the  slates,  limestones,  and  sandstones,  together  with  other 
formations  which  are  associated  Avith  coal ;  and  it  is  a  cu- 
rious circumstance,  that  the  vegetable  impressions  from 
coal  strata  in  North  America,  New  Holland,  and  various 
parts  of  Europe,  show  a  close  analogy  in  the  ancient  vege 
tation  of  these  distant  countries.  Indeed,  so  far  as  ob 
servations  have  been  made,  there  exists  a  similarity  in 
the  plants  of  coal  formations,  in  every  part  of  the  world. 
Most  of  these  plants  belonged  to  tribes  or  orders  now  in 
existence,  though  in  nearly,  if  not  in  quite  every  instance, 
these  species  are  now  nowhere  to  be  found.  These  spe- 
cies are,  therefore,  considered  as  extinct,  but  at  what  pe- 
riod, and  in  what  manner  they  were  destroyed  must  be 
left  entirely  to  conjecture. 

We  shall  see  that  some  of  these  ancient  plants  were 
highly  curious  and  singular  in  their  construction,  and  in 
which  they  differed  entirely  from  any  vegetable  of  the  pre- 
sent day,  while  others  were  similar  in  appearance  to  those 
now  existing. 

The  argillaceous  nodules  found  in  some  of  the  English 
coal  mines  exhibit  beautiful  and  distinct  impressions  of 
many  unknown  species,  some  of  which,  however,  it  is 
said,  have  living  analogues  in  tropical  climates.  When 
these  nodules  are  carefully  broken,  the  impressions  are 
preserved  on  both  sides,  but  not  as  might  be  expected,  dis- 
playing each  side  of  the  vegetable,  but  the  same  side  on 
each  broken  surface ;  in  one,  in  alto,  in  the  other,  in  basso 
•relievo.  The  explanation  of  this  curious  circumstance, 

*  These  plants  have  their  fruit  concealed  and  are  flowerless,  as 
the  mushrooms,  ferns,  mosses,  and  sea-weeds. 

t  As  the  palms,  rushes,  lilies,  grasses,  &c.  This  term  has  al- 
ready been  explained. 


FOSSIL    PLANTS.  285 

which  long  puzzled  observers,  is  found  in  the  vegetable 
matter,  which  during  its  passage  through  the  bituminous 
change  became  softened,  and  having  filled  its  own  mould 
with  its  melted  and  subsequently  hardened  substance ;  the 
nodule,  on  being  broken,  showing  on  one  side,  the  surface 
of  the  adherent  bituminous  cast,  and  on  the  other,  the  cor- 
responding mould. 

The  adjoining  cut  will  give  a  good  idea  of  these  impres- 
sions. It  represents  a  species  of  polypodium,  in  slate  clay, 
from  the  coal  mines  of  Lancashire.  Sir  James  E.  Smith, 
considers  it  the  production  of  a  tropical  climate,  nothing  of 
the  same  species  being  known  in  Europe. 

Pig.  59. 


It  has  repeatedly  been  stated  in  different  parts  of  this 
volume,  that  the  cryptogamous  plants  found  in  Europe,  in 
the  fossil  state,  indicate  by  their  immense  s'zes,  a  tropical 
climate.  The  calamites  or  equisetums,  a  genus  well 
known  to  botanists,  and  one  species,  to  housewives,  under 
the  name  of  scouring  rush,  are  examples.  The  remarka- 
ble size  of  this  species,  at  the  period  when  the  earth  pro- 
duced the  vegetables  which  now  form  coal,  would  seem  to 
show,  that  the  climate  of  England,  and  the  higher  parts 
of  North  America,  where  its  fossil  remains  are  also  found, 
were  hotter  than  any  region  of  the  earth  is  at  the  present 
day.  The  equisetums  afford  an  excellent  standard  of  the 
warmth  of  the  climate  in  which  they  grow,  being  found 
at  the  present  day,  from  the  highest  northern  regions,  to 
the  hottest  southern  ;  and  progressively  increasing  in  size 
from  the  pole  to  the  equator. 


FOSSIL    PLANTS. 


Fig.  60. 


But  even  under  the  equator,  they  never  attain  the  size 
of  their  fossil  analogues,  the  catamites.* 

The  annexed  figure,  from  Dr 
Ure,  represents  the  fossil  species 
called  by  Brogniart,  Calamites 
approximatus,  on  account  of  the 
proximity  of  its  articulations.  It 
is  found  in  the  coal  formations 
of  Newcastle,  at  Lubec,  near 
Canada,  in  France,  and  in  Sibe- 
ria. One  specimen  from  Lubec, 
is  nearly  two  inches  in  diameter, 
but  much  larger  ones,  even  ten 
or  twelve  inches  in  diameter, 
are  said  to  have  been  found. 
In  this  climate,  it  is  believed 
that  none  of  the  equisetums  now 
rise  higher  than  four  or  five 
feet,  with  a  diameter  seldom  ex- 
ceeding half  an  inch,  and  gen- 
erally little  more  than  half  this 
size. 

Some  of  the  antediluvian 
plants,  were  singularly  curious  and  beautiful,  as  is  shown 
to  us  by  the  impressions,  or  casts  left  on  stones,  or  by  their 
petrified  remains.  Some  are  ornamented  by  regularly 
disposed,  straight  ribs,  arranged  longitudinally,  or  trans- 
versely, over  their  whole  surface ;  some  by  the  decussa- 
tion,  or  crossing  of  nearly  straight  lines,  obliquely  dis- 
posed ;  and  many,  by  the  alternate  contact  and  receding 
of  gently  waving  lines,  forming  areas,  regularly,  but  most 
singularly  varying  in  their  forms,  and  having  in  their  cen- 
tres, tubercles  and  depressions,  from  which  spines  have 
probably  proceeded.  In  others,  lines,  obliquely  disposed, 
intersect  each  other  at  angles,  varying  in  their  acuteness, 
in  different  specimens,  and  in,  it  would  seem,  an  almost 
endless  variety,  forming  surfaces  apparently  covered  with 
scales. 

One  of  these,  called  Phytolithus  verrucosus,  or  warty 


*  The  calamites  are  not  considered  of  precisely  the  same  species 
as  the  equisetums,  the  first  being  only  fossil,  and  the  second  only 
recent ;  but  both  are  of  the  same  family. 


FOSSIL  PLANtS. 


287 


Fig.  61. 


stone  plant,  has  attracted  particular  attention,  but  appears 
to  have  foiled  every  one  who  has  attempted  to  explain  its 
original  nature  and  mode  of  existence. 

The  subjoined  cuts  will  give  a 

food  idea  of  this  strange  ante- 
iluvian.  It  is  described  by  Mr. 
Martin,  to  have  a  sub  cylindrical, 
subramose,  tuberculated  trunk, 
fig.  61,  with  suppressed  tubercles 
set  in  quincunx  order,  a,  having 
linear,  lanceolated  leaves,  fig.  62, 
b,  horizontally  disposed.  In  some 
parts,  is  a  deep,  longitudinal  sul- 
cus,  or  furrow,  as  seen  at  c,  fig. 
61;  beneath  which  is  a  rough 
imbricated  body,  of  a  slender, 
cylindrical  form,  exposed  at  d, 
fig.  62.  This,  Mr.  Martin  sup- 
poses, after  a  certain  distance, 
strikes  out  laterally,  and  forms  a 
branch:  the  trunk  i$  then  con- 
tinued for  some  length,  without 
the  furrow,  or  imbricated  body, 
after  which,  this  again  appears, 
and  another  branch  is  thrown  out 
in  a  different  direction. 

Various  opinions  have  been  en- 
tertained respecting  this  interest- 
ing fossil,  so  unlike  any  of  the  vegetables  of  the  present 
day.  Mr.  Parkinson  had  conjectured  that  it  belonged  to 
some  body  resembling  the  strobilus,  or  cone  of  some  ve- 
getable, while  Mr.  Martin  describes  it  as  above.  The 
Rev.  Mr.  Steinhauer  has  since  studied  this  fossil,  and  con- 
cludes that  the  bodies  supposed  by  Mr.  Martin  to  be 
leaves,  were  cylindrical  fibres,  which  shot  out  of  the 
trunk,  while  the  plant  grew  in  a  horizontal  posture.  He 
supposes  that  it  grew  in  this  direction,  in  the  soft  mud  at 
the  bottoms  of  lakes  or  seas — that  it  had  no  branches,  but 
sent  out  fibres  on  all  sides;  and  that  it  was  furnished  in 
the  centre  with  a  pith,  of  a  structure  different  from  the 
surrounding  wood 


288 


FOSSIL  PLANTS. 


But  the  ingenious  author  of 
these  observations  has  omitted 
to  notice  the  imbricated  or  re- 
ticulated surface  of  the  central 
substance,  referred  to  above, 
and  which  Mr.  Parkinson  thinks 
will  afford  some  information. 
These  configurations  undoubt- 
edly depended  on  the  attach- 
ment of  some  parts  of  the  vege- 
table, and  probably  were  the 
bases  on  which  were  placed 
those  delicately  formed  tubular 
processes,  represented  by  fig. 
63,  a,  which  are  seen  to  pass  from  the  internal  substance 
to  the  surface  of  the  body. 

From  all  the  information  that  has  been  obtained,  it  is 
supposed  by  naturalists,  that  the  Phytolithus  verrucosus 
was  a  plant  of  the  succulent  tribe,  differing  from  vegeta- 
bles of  the  present  world,  by  its  containing  a  more  solid 
part  within  its  succulent  substance,  from  which  proceed- 
ed a  delicate  organization,  by  which  a  communication  was 
preserved  with  the  external  surface.  It  also  appears  that 
the  species  of  this  genus,  distinguished  by  their  character- 
istic markings,  may  have  been  numerous. — Parkinson's 
Organic  Remains,  and  Trans.  Am.  Philo.  Soc.,  New  Se- 
ries, vol.  i. 

Fig.  64.  Phytolithus  cancellatus.  (Cross 

barred  stone  plant.)  Mr.  Stein- 
hauer  has  taken  much  pains  to 
detect  and  explain  the  different 
appearances  which  this  species 
presents.  He  has  ascertained 
that  there  are  three  distinct  kinds 
of  configurations  proceeding  from 
it,  originating  in  the  epidermis, 
the  bark,  and  that  which  may  be 
considered  as  holding  the  situa- 
tion of  the  wood  of  the  plant. 

The  first,  or  epidermal  part,  is  formed  of  rhombs,  divided  by 
lines,  forming  a  network  in  a  manner  difficult  to  express, 
either  by  drawings  or  descriptions,  and  which  leaves  the 
rhombs  still  approximate. 


FOSSIL    PLANTS. 


289 


Fi 


Fig.  66. 


The  impression  of  this  part,  is  represented  by  fig.  64.  In 
the  second,  or  the  cortical  part,  the 
lines  between  the  rhombs  are  of  more 
breadth,  the  ridge  broader,  and  less  de- 
fined, and  forms,  with  the  contracted 
superior  elevation,  a  protuberance,  and 
the  central  part  assumes  the  figure  of 
a  squamula.  Fig.  65,  represents  the 
matrix  or  cast  of  this  part.  The  third 
or  ligneous  configuration,  differs  ex- 
tremely from  the  two  former,  and  only 
close  observation  determines  that  it 
originates  from  the  same  plant.  The 
cancillated  appearance  is  here  entirely  lost ;  the  surface  is 
slightly  striated  Avith  a  scarcely  perceptible  rising  under 
the  central  ridge,  and  a  minute,  but  distinctly  raised  dot 
in  the  place  of  the  depression 
in  the  epidermis.  It  has  all  the 
appearance  of  a  peeled  plant, 
which  has  been  furnished  with 
small  branches,  set  in  quincun- 
cial  order.  This  is  represent- 
ed by  fig.  66. 

Eight  species  of  this  genus 
are  described,  but  the  plan  of 
this  work  forbids  further  de- 
tail. 

In  some  instances,  trees  of  large  dimensions  have  been 
discovered  in  the  fossil  state,  but  these  are  mostly  of  the 
Monocotyledonous  kinds,  as  the  palms  and  tree-like 
ferns. 

In  the  quarry  of  sandstone,  belonging  to  the  coal  for- 
mation, on  which  the  city  of  Glasgow  is  built,  the  quarry- 
men  came  upon  a  tree  in  its  place,  and  just  as  it  had  been 
growing.  The  trunk  is  about  twenty-six  inches  in  diam- 
eter, not  quite  round,  but  somewhat  oval,  so  that  the  north 
and  south  diameter  is  several  inches  longer  than  the  east 
and  west.  The  body  of  the  tree  is  composed  of  sandstone 
precisely  similar  to  the  rest  of  the  quarry ;  but  the  bark 
has  been  converted  into  perfect  cherry  coal,  which  ad- 
heres firmly  to  the  stone  tree,  and  renders  it  easy  to  re- 
move the  rock  with  which  it  is  incrusted.  About  three 
feet  of  the  bottom  of  the  tree  has  been  uncovered ;  this 
portion  is  situated  about  forty  feet  below  the  surface,  in  a 
25 


290  FOSSIL    PLANTS. 

solid  quarry  of  sandstone.  The  upper  part  of  the  trunk 
and  branches  have  not  been  uncovered.  The  roots  may 
be  seen  dipping  down  into  the  earth  precisely  as  the  roots 
of  living  trees  do.  Four  very  large  roots  may  be  seen 
issuing  from  the  trunk,  and  extending,  some  of  them,  about 
a  foot  before  they  are  lost  in  the  surrounding  stone.  There 
is  nothing  to  indicate  the  species  of  tree,  of  which  the 
mould  has  been  thus  preserved.  From  the  appearance  of 
the  roots  it  is  obvious,  however,  that  it  was  not  a  fir. 

This  petrifaction  demonstrates,  that  the  sandstone  has 
been  formed  at  some  period  since  the  growth  of  large 
trees,  and  that  the  water  worn  appearance  of  the  quartz 
pebbles,  of  which  the  sandstone  is  composed,  is  not  a  de- 
ceitful indication. 

Petrifactions.  There  is  a  popular  opinion,  that  in  the 
process  of  petrifaction,  wood  is  changed  to  stone.  The 
truth  appears  to  be,  that  as  the  wood  decays,  its  place  is 
supplied  by  particles  of  stony  matter,  deposited  from  water  ; 
and  as  those  particles  are  exceedingly  small,  and  the  de- 
cay of  the  wood  slow,  its  fibrous  structure  is  preserved  in 
the  stone,  after  the  wood  has  entirely  disappeared.  Wood 
never  undergoes  this  change  when  in  a  state  of  soundness 
and  integrity  ;  but  only  when  it  becomes  spongy  by  decay, 
and  when  all  its  constituents  have  disappeared  except  the 
woody  or  ligneous  fibre.  This  is  proved  by  most  speci- 
mens of  petrified  wood,  which  show  a  partial  decay  before 
the  process  of  mineralization  began. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  petrifactions ;  the  one  caused  by 
the  infiltration  of  calcareous,  and  the  other  of  silicious 
particles. 

Calcareous  Vegetable  Fossils.  Lime  is  not  very  fre- 
quently the  mineralizing  matter  of  vegetable  fossils  ;  it  is, 
however,  sometimes  found  introduced  into  the  remains  of 
wood  in  the  form  of  spar,  or  imperfect  crystals ;  in  the 
compact  form,  it  is  also  found  filling  the  interior  of  fossil 
reeds  and  succulent  plants. 

Silicious  Vegetable  Fossils.  These  are  immediately 
distinguished  from  the  calcareous,  by  their  greater  hard 
ness,  the  former  giving  fire  with  steel,  while  the  latter  are 
easily  scratched  with  a  knife.  The  silicious  fossils  are 
remarkable  for  the  correctness  with  which  the  fibres  and 
markings  of  the  wood  have  been  preserved. 


FOSSIL    PLANTS. 


291 


The  color  is  generally  grayish,  or  yellowish  white, 
sometimes  passing  into  brown,  and  is  easily  broken  into 
sharp  edged  fragments.  It  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the 
world,  but  the  finest  specimens  are  said  to  come  from 
Hungary.  The  English,  Portland  limestone,  contains 
large  fragments  of  wood,  petrified  by  silicious  infiltration, 
the'interstices  often  containing  fine  crystals  of  quartz. 

These  petrifactions  prove  that  silicious  matter  is  so- 
luble in  water,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  and  that 
it  not  only  takes  the  form  of  the  woody  fibre,  but  also  of 
crystals. 

Dr.  Maceulloch  has  shown  also,  that  in  many  instances, 
the  mosses  and  other  small  vegetables,  become  incrusted 
with  silicious  matter,  while  in  their  vegetable  state,  and 
are  thus  preserved  from  decay.  But  these  real  cases, 
must  be  distinguished  from  the  black,  tree-like  appear- 
ances, which  are  often  seen  on  the  flat  surfaces  of  lime- 
stone, and  which  are  produced  by  oxide  of  iron,  or  man- 
ganese. 

The  vegetable  matter  is  easily  de- 
tected by  mixing  a  little  of  the  moss 
agate,  ground  fine,  with  some  black 
oxide  of  copper, — exposing  the  mix- 
ture to  heat,  in  a  glass  tube,  stopped 
at  one  end,  and.  bent  so  that  the  other 
may  dip  in  lime  water  contained  in 
a  vial.  If  any  vegetable  matter  be 
present,  carbonic  acid  gas  will  form, 
and  passing  into  the  lime  water,  will 
give  it  a  turbid  or  milky  appearance. 
The  adjoining  cut  represents  a  spe- 
cimen of  moss,  apparently  belonging 
to  the  genus  hypnum,  contained  with- 
in a  silicious  deposite,  called  chalce- 
dony. In  some  instances  of  this  kind, 
the  vegetable  form  is  so  perfectly  pre- 
served, that  the  plant  seems  to  float 
as  if  in  a  liquid.  Even  the  green  co- 
lor occasionally  is  preserved,  and,  in  a  few  instances,  the 
species  has  been  determined. 


Fig.  67. 


292  CONCHOLOGY. 


FOSSIL    SHELLS. 

That  the  student  may  understand  what  follows,  it  is  ne- 
cessary for  him  to  become  acquainted  with  the  principles 
on  which  shells  are  arranged,  and  a  few  of  the  terms  by 
which  the  different  parts  of  a  shell  are  denoted. 

Shells,  in  their  recent  state,  are  composed  of  carbonate 
of  lime,  mixed  with  a  little  animal  or  gelatinous  matter. 
In  their  fossil  state,  the  gelatinous  matter  is  seldom  pre- 
sent, though  sometimes  a  small  quantity  has  been  de- 
tected. 


CONCHOL06V. 


Conchology  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  structure, 
arrangement,  and  properties  of  shells.  Shells  are  in- 
habited by  testaceous  animals,  and  to  which  they  are  only 
partially  attached.  Crustaceous  animals  are  confined 
entirely  within  their  coverings,  each  limb,  or  member 
being  invested  by  its  own  peculiar  shield,  as  in  the  lob- 
ster and  crab.  Many  of  the  testacea  are  fixed  by  an  at- 
tachment to  other  substances,  as  the  oyster  and  muscle ; 
while  others  have  the  power  of  crawling  along  the  bot- 
tom, or  of  moving  through  the  water,  as  the  unio,  (fresh 
water  clam,)  and  the  scallop.  The  animals  which  in- 
habit shells  are  called  mollusca  or  molluscous  animals, 
but  the  classification  depends,  not  on  the  habits  or  form 
of  the  animal,  but  on  the  form  and  other  properties  of  the 
shell. 

The  Linnzean  system  of  conchology,  which  is  the  most 
simple  of  any  that  has  been  proposed,  divides  shells  into 
Multivalves,  Bivalves,  and  Univalves. 

By  valve,  is  here  meant  any  single  piece  of  shell,  which 
forms  the  habitation  or  part  of  the  habitation  of  a  mol- 
luscous animal.  Any  shell  formed  of  more  than  two 
pieces  is  a  multivalve.  Bivalves  consist  of  two  distinct 
pieces,  and  univalves  of  a  single  piece. 


OONCHOLOGY. 


293 


Fig- 68.  i.  MULTIVALVES.     This  is  much 

the  smallest  class,  but  contains  some 
beautiful  shells.  The  genus  Lepas, 
which  contains  the  common  barnacle, 
fig.  68,  belongs  here.  The  Chiton  or 
coat  of  mail  is  another  member  of  this 
class.  The  generic  description  of 
Lepas  is,  "Shell  multivalve;  affixed 
at  the  base ;  valves  unequal,  erect." — 
These  shells  are  chiefly  parasitic,  be- 
ing attached  to  extraneous  substances, 
often  to  ships,  pieces  of  wood,  whales,  &c.  The  generic 
characters  of  this  class  are  derived  from  the  number  and 
situation  of  the  valves. 

2.  BIVALVES.  This  class  includes  all  such  shells  as 
are  composed  of  two  pieces  only,  whatever  their  forms  or 
dimensions  may  be ;  and  in  these  respects,  the  species  dif- 
fer exceedingly.  The  two  valves  of  the  Chama  gigas 
sometimes  weigh  500  pounds,  and  from  this,  there  are  all 
grades  of  size  down  to  that  of  a  grain  of  sand. 

Bivalve  shells,  when  their 
valves  are  similar  in  size  and 
form  are  said  to  be  equivalved; 
if  not  similar,  inequivalved ; 
when  the  anterior  part  agrees 
in  form  with  the  posterior, 
they  are  said  to  be  equilate- 
ral, if  not,  inequilateral.  The 
valves  are  connected  at  their 
~-'ff  base  by  a  ligament,  with  or 
\vithout  a  hinge,  the  ligament 
being  placed  externally  or  in- 
ternally. The  belly,  a,  fig.  69, 
is  the  most  tumid  part;  the  disk,  b,  is  that  part  between  the 
belly  and  the  margin,  c,  which  is  considered  to  refer  to  the 
external  side,  or,  as  it  may  be  termed,  Avhen  the  shell  is 
placed  on  its  base,  the  upper  side  ;  then  the  umbones  (emi- 
nences) d,  are  beneath  the  hinge,  and  terminate  in  the 
points  or  beaks,  e,  which  are  incurved,  reflected,  or  ear 
formed.  The  beaks  are  frequently  in  particular  shells,  ac- 
25* 


294  CONCHOLOGY. 

companied  by  two  external  impressions,  one  of  these,  tho 
corslet,  f,  is  on  the  anterior  surface,  and  is  separated  from 
the  disk,  generally  by  a  ridge,  an  angle,  or  a  sunken  line ; 
and  is  often  distinguishable  by  its  difference  of  color ;  it  is 
sometimes  spinous,  carinated,  lamellated,  &c.,  but  is  more 
generally  smooth,  when  it  is  said  to  be  naked.  The  other 
impression,  called  the  lunule,  g,  is  placed  at  the  bottom  of 
the  posterior  surface ;  it  is  variously  shaped,  oval,  oblong, 
lanceolate,  &c.  The  two  pieces,  forming  the  shell,  are 
called  the  right  and  left  valves.  The  shell  being  placed 
on  the  hinge  with  the  anterior  side  forward,  that  is  consid- 
ered as  the  right  valve,  which  answers  to  the  left  hand, 
the  other  being  the  left  valve.  The  length  of  a  bivalve  is 
from  the  umbones  to  the  margin  opposite ;  and  the  width 
or  breadth,  from  the  end  of  the  anterior  to  that  of  the  pos- 
terior margin.  Hence  many  shells  are  broader  than  they 
are  long.  Those  whose  length  exceeds  their  width  are 
called  longitudinal,  and  those  whose  width  exceeds  their 
length,  are  called  transverse  shells.  Shells  are  distin- 
guished by  the  appellations  free,  when  they  are  capable  of 
moving,  and  fixed  when  they  adhere  to  other  bodies. 

Bivalves  are  divided  into  three  orders,  depending  on  the 
mechanism  of  their  hinges. 

Fig.  70.  First.      Those   which 

are  furnished  with  inter- 
nal teeth  at  the  hinge,  but 
which  are  not  inserted 
into  the  opposite  valves, 
as  in  fig.  70.  The  genus 
Mya,  (to  which  belongs 
the  common  long  clam,)  and  Solen,  (razor  shell,)  are  ex- 
amples. 

To  the  Mya  genus,  belongs  the  Pearl  Gaper,  (Mya 
margaritifcra,)  a  beautiful  shell  with  a  pearly  lustre,  and 
which  occasionally  produces  pearls  of  great  value.  It  is 
found  in  the  large  rivers  of  the  northern  latitudes,  and  is 
not  the  shell  which  is  the  object  of  the  regular  pearl 
fishers. 

To  this  genus  also,  belongs  some  shells  in  considerable 
request  among  collectors :  but  on  the  whole,  the  genus  is 
not  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  many  of  its  species. 


CONCHOLOGY.  295 

Fig.  71.  Second.    Shells  which 

have  their  teeth  inserted 
into  their  opposite  valves, 
fig.  71.  To  this  order 
belongs  the  Cardium, 
(heart  shell,)  and  the 
Venus;  one  species  of 
which  is  well  known  in  our  markets,  under  the  name  of 
round  clam,  and  which  are  taken  in  great  abundance  on 
the  shores  of  Long  Island,  and  sold  as  an  article  of  food. 

Third.  Shells,  having  a  hinge,  without  teeth,  as  in  the 
well  known  shells,  the  oyster  and  scallop. 

The  generic  distinctions  of  the  bivalves,  depending  en- 
tirely on  their  teeth,  and  their  genera  in  the  Linnaean  sys- 
tem amounting  to  only  thirteen  in  number,  they  are  easily 
distinguished  from  each  other.  The  species  depending  on 
the  forms  and  markings  are  not  so  readily  distinguished. 

3.  UNIVALVES.  This  is  much  the  largest  class,  and 
contains  a  great  proportion  of  the  shells  which  collectors 
seek  after  with  so  much  avidity,  and  many  of  which  are 
exceedingly  beautiful  in  their  forms  and  colors. 

Univalves  differ  greatly  from  each  other  in  form,  size, 
and  coloring.  Like  the  bivalves,  their  different  parts  are 
distinguished  by  peculiar  names,  which  are  applied  in  sci- 
entific descriptions,  and  by  means  of  which  conchologists 
are  enabled  to  understand  each  other. 

Only  the  most  necessary  and  common  of  these  terms 
can  here  be  explained. 

The  univalves  are  distinguished  chiefly  by  the  form, 
size,  and  direction  of  their  apertures,  but  sometimes  by 
the  conformation  of  the  shell. 

The  univalves  are  exceedingly  numerous,  of  a  great  va- 
riety of  forms ;  and  some  of  them  remarkably  beautiful, 
both  in  shape  and  color.  The  names  of  the  several  parts 
of  a  univalve  will  be  distinguished  by  the  annexed  cut 


296 


CONCHOLOGY. 


Pig.  72, 


The  spire,  a,  in  the  uni- 
valve, fig.  72,  is  formed 
by  the  union  of  the  turns, 
or  whorls,  b,  which  are 
counted  by  reckoning  the 
lower  turn,  containing  the 
opening  below,  as  the  first, 
and  counting  on  the  same 
line  to  the  top  of  the  spire. 
The  turns  in  most  shells 
go  from  the  right  to  the 
,  left ;  when  they  pass  from 
left  to  right,  which  rarely 
happens,  the  shell  is  said 
to  be  reversed.  The  line 
passing  round  the  shell 
like  a  screw,  and  at  which 
the  whorls  are  united  to  each  other,  is  termed  the  suture. 
The  whorls  are  plain,  grooved,  crenulated,  crowned  with 
points,  &c. 

The  back  of  the  shell,  c,  is  the  external,  tumid  part,  on 
the  opposite  side,  and  above  the  aperture.  The  body  con- 
sists of  the  whole  of  the  tumid  part,  c,  which  forms  tbe 
first  whorl.  The  opening,  or  aperture,  e,  is  circular,  oval, 
angular,  &c.,  and  it  is  often  the  form  of  this  part  which  de- 
termines the  genus  of  the  shell.  This  opening  terminates 
in  a  groove  or  notch,  which  is  either  straight  or  turned  to 
the  right  or  left,  or  backwards.  When  the  opening  is 
longer  than  wide,  it  is  said  to  be  longitudinal ;  and  when 
wider  than  long,  transverse.  The  edge  or  margin  of  the 
opening  is  divided  into  right  and  left  lips.  The  right,  or 
outer  lip,  d,  reaches  from  the  body,  or  first  turn  of  the  shell, 
to  the  base.  The  left  lip,  g,  is  on  the  other  side  of  the 

rning,  and  is  of  small  extent  in  those  shells,  the  openings 
which  are  entire.     This  opening  is  filled  with  a  body 
composed  of  shell,  or  cartilage,  which  is  attached  to  the 
animal,  and  with  which  he  can  close  the  opening  at  pleas- 
ure, by  drawing  it  in.     This  is  termed  the  operculum. 

The  little  white  bodies,  popularly  called  eye-stones,  are 
operculums. 

Univalves  are  distinguished  into  two  kinds. 


CONCHOLOOY. 


297 


Fig.  73. 


First.  Those  which  are  furnished 
with  a  spire,  as  fig  73,  and  those  having 
no  spire. 

Those  furnished  with  spires,  are  again 
divided  into  such  as  have,  1st,  their  aper- 
tures effuse,  that  is,  having  the  lips  sepa- 
rated by  a  sinus,  or  gutter,  so  that  if  filled 
with  water,  it  would  flow  out  at  the  back 
part,  as  the  conus,  cyprcea,  bulla  and  -va- 
luta,. 2d.  Such  as  have  their  apertures 
canaliculate,  or  like  a  canal,  as  buccinum, 
strombus,  and  murez.  3d.  Such  as  have 
their  apertures  coarctate,  or  contracted, 
opposed  to  effuse,  as  helix,  turbo,  and  ne- 
rita. 


Fig.  74. 


Second.  Those  either  having  no 
spires,  or  irregular,  or  imperfect 
ones.  The  patella,  or  limpet,  fig. 
74,  is  an  example. 

In  this  epitome  of  conchology, 
we  shall  describe  a  part,  but  not  the 
whole  of  the  thirty-six  Linnasan 
genera,  at  the  same  time  indicating  which  are  recent,  or 
now  living ;  which  are  fossil,  or  extinct ;  and  which  are 
both  recent  and  fossil. 

Fig.  75.  MULTIVALVES.  Genus  Pholat,  fig.  75. 

Shell  bivalve,  inequilateral,  and  gaping ; 
having  small  accessory  valves,  a,  situated 
on  the  hinge  and  posterior  slope ;  hinge 
recurved  and  furnished  with  a  tooth. 

The  name  Pholades,  imports  seek  a 
hiding,  in  reference  to  the  habits  of  the 
animals,  which  live  in  limestone  rocks, 
or  wood,  entering  when  small,  and  grad- 
ually increasing  their  cells,  according  to 
their  growth.  The  largest  specimens 
are  found  in  chalk,  which  being  a  soft 
rock,  perhaps  admits  of  a  larger  growth, 
in  consequence  of  the  ease  with  which 
the  animal  enlarges  his  cell.  There  is 
a  mystery  concerning  the  means  by  which  these  animals 
penetrate  the  substance  of  their  future  prison,  which  from 


298 


CONCHOLOGY. 


the  size  of  the  aperture  must  be  done  when  they  are  very 
young.  The  animal  undoubtedly  has  the  power  of  dis- 
solving the  stone  and  wood  by  means  unknown  to  man. 
The  idea  of  friction  with  the  shell,  is  untenable,  since  this 
is  covered  'with  raised  net  work,  with  the  points  sharply 
defined.  This  shell  has  not  been  found  in  the  fossil  state. 

Fig.  76.  BIVALVES.  Genus  Mytilus,  fig.  76.  Shell 
longitudinal,  equivalved;  the  beaks  nearly 
straight,  terminal  and  pointed ;  hinge  without 
teeth.  Shape  either  folded  or  lobed,  crested  or 
attenuated  towards  the  apex.  This  is  the 
muscle  of  common  language.  To  this  genus 

C*""^  belongs  the  pearl-bearing  shell,  (mytilus  mar- 
garitiferus,)  of  the  Indian  fisheries.  The  whole  genus 
are  inseparably  attached  to  other  substances. 

The  species  in  which  pearls  are  found,  are  most  abun- 
dant, and  in  the  greatest  perfection,  on  the  coast  of  the 
Persian  gulf  and  of  the  island  of  Ceylon.  The  term 
pearl  oyster  is  commonly  applied  to  this  shell,  but  incor- 
rectly, as  is  obvious,  since  the  genus  is  Mytilus,  and  not 
Ostrea. 

In  the  great  pearl  fisheries  which  supply  the  eastern 
markets,  the  number  of  fish  annually  brought  up  by  di- 
vers, is  almost  incredible.  Many  of  the  shells  contain 
no  pearls,  but  some  contain  two  or  three.  Those  of  two 
grains,  sell  from  about  1.50  to  2  dollars  each,  those  of  five 
grains,  from  8  to  10  dollars  each:  those  of  eight  or  nine 
grains  are  of  arbitrary  value,  because  they  are  very  rare. 
The  finest  specimens  sometimes  bring  enormous  prices, 
being  considered  invaluable,  and  fit  only  to  adorn  the 
persons  of  eastern  potentates. 

Of  the  Mytilus,  there  are  about  forty  recent,  and  two 
fossil  species. 


Fig.  77 


Genus  Ostrea.  Shell  bivalve,  gen- 
erally with  unequal  valves,  and  slight- 
ly eared  hinge ;  without  teeth,  but 
furnished  with  an  ovate  hollow,  and 
usually  with  lateral  transverse  grooves. 

This  genus  includes  the  scallop,  or 
pecten,  fig.  77,  which,  however,  unlike 
the  oyster  in  the  habit  of  the  animal, 
and  the  general  form  of  the  shell, 


CONCHOLOOY.  299 

agrees  with  it  in  the  mechanism  of  the  hinge,  the  part  on 
which  the  generic  distinctions  depend. 

The  locomotive  powers  of  the  scallop  are  exerted  in  a 
singular  manner.  On  the  ground  a  rapid  progress  is  made 
by  opening  and  shutting  the  shell  suddenly,  and  with  so 
much  muscular  force,  as  to  throw  it  five  or  six  inches 
each  time.  In  the  water,  an  equal  dexterity  is  evinced  hy 
the  animal  in  raising  himself  to  the  surface ;  probably  by 
the  same  means,  and  of  directing  his  course  at  pleasure. 
When  disturbed  he  shuts  his  valves,  and  sinks  to  the  bot- 
tom like  a  stone. 

Of  the  Ostrea,  there  are  fifty  living,  and  thirty-six  fossil 
species. 

Fig.  78.  UNIVALVES.   Genus  Argonauta. 

Shell,  an  involuted  univalve;  the 
spire  turned  into  the  opening,  very 
thin,  with  a  tubular  double  dorsal 
keel,  fig.  78. 

The  art  of  navigation  is  supposed 
to  have  owed  its  origin  to  the  expert 
management  of  this  instinctive  sail- 
or. He  was  observed  by  the  ancients,  (and  subsequent  ex- 
perience has  confirmed  the  observation,)  to  raise  himself 
to  the  surface  of  the  sea,  by  ejecting  a  quantity  of  water, 
and  thus  diminishing  the  specific  gravity  of  his  vessel. 
When  floating  in  a  calm,  he  throws  out  two  or  more  ten- 
tacula,  or  feelers,  to  serve  as  oars.  If  a  favoring  breeze 
springs  up,  he  spreads  a  fine  membranous  sail,  on  two 
extended  limbs,  and  steering  with  his  other  arms,  shows 
his  naval  skill  by  numberless  evolutions.  In  case  of  dan- 
ger, he  draws  in  a  little  water,  hauls  in,  and  coils  up  his 
tackle,  and  sinks  to  the  bottom.  This  is  rarely,  if  ever, 
found  in  the  fossil  state. 
Fig.  79. 

Genus  Patella.  A  shield-formed,  sub-con- 
ical univalve,  without  a  spire ;  sometimes  with 
a  perforation  through  the  summit,  fig.  79.  Fig. 
74,  a  perforated  Patella. 

The  name  Patella,  is  from  the  resemblance 
of  some  species  to  the  knee-pan.  There  is  considerable 
variety  in  the  forms  of  the  species,  but  all  are  fixed  firmly 
to  the  rocks  or  stones,  by  the  animal  which  is  covered  by 
the  shell. 

It  is  both  fossil  and  recent 


300  CONCHOLOOY. 

Pig.  80.  Genus  Dentalium.  Shell  univalve,  sub-conical, 
a  little  curved,  tubular,  not  chambered,  open  at  both 
ends.  Fig.  80. 

The  form,  as  the  name  expresses,  is  like  that  of 
teeth,  or  tusks,  especially  like  the  tusks  of  an  ele- 
phant. 

These  shells  are  found  partly  buried  in  the  sand, 
and  the  animal,  which  some  naturalists  have  sup- 
posed to  be  free  and  unattached  to  his  shell,  may  be 
observed  to  sink  deeply  into  it,  in  order  to  avoid  danger. 
The  species  are  few,  and  entirely  recent. 
Fig.  81.  Genus  Cypraa.    Shell  univalve,  involute, 

obtuse,  smooth  ;  aperture  effuse  at  both  ends, 
linear,  toothed  on  both  sides,  longitudinal, 
fig.  81. 

This  genus  is  remarkable  for  the  high 
polish,  and  often  beautiful  colors,  with  which 
it  is  adorned  in  its  native  state.  Many  of 
the  species  are  quite  common,  and  therefore 
not  so  highly  prized  by  collectors  as  the  more  rare.  They 
are  often  set  for  snuff  boxes. 

The  inhabitant  of  this  shell,  it  is  said,  has  the  power  of 
quitting  it,  and  of  forming  a  new  one  better  fitted  to  his 
necessities  or  convenience.  "  The  Cyprsea  live  deeply  bu- 
ried in  the  sand,  from  whence,  it  is  said,  at  the  full  moon, 
and  during  its  increase,  they  leave  their  habitations  for 
the  benefit  of  conchologists,  and  crawl  forth  in  a  state  of 
nakedness,  to  expatiate  on  the  rocks  above,  and  to  begin  a 
new  dwelling."  This  accounts  for  the  great  numbers 
and  high  state  of  preservation  in  which  these  shells  are 
found.  Naturalists,  however,  doubt  the  ability  of  these 
animals  to  leave  their  shells. 

The  name  of  this  genus  appears  to  be  derived  from  that 
of  the  Cyprian  goddess,  on  account  of  the  great  beauty  of 
the  species. 

Genus  Bulla.  Shell  univalve,  convolute, 
unarmed ;  aperture  sub-coarctate,  or  a  little 
contracted,  oblong,  longitudinal,  entire  at  the 
base,  fig.  82. 

The  shell  of  this  genus  is  enclosed  in  a 
mantle,  or  fold  of  the  animal,  instead  of  form- 
ing an  exterior  shield,  as  in  most  cases. — 
Some  of  them  are  river  shells,  but  they  most- 
ly live  in  the  sea,  buried  a  few  inches  in  the  mud. 


CONCHOLOOY. 


301 


The  name  Bulla,  a  bubble,  is  descriptive  of  the  swelled, 
or  puffed  form  of  the  shells  of  most  species. 

Pig.  83.  Genus  Valuta.     Shell  univalve,  convo 

lute,  columella  or  pillar  plaited  or  screw- 
ed, the  lower  plaits  being  the  largest ;  it 
has  neither  lip  nor  umbilicus,  fig.  83. 

These  shells  are  easily  discriminated  by 
the  plaited  columella,  and  by  which  they 
are  particularly  distinguished  from  the 
genus  Conus.  The  plaits  are  longitudi- 
nally inclined  and  not  nearly  horizontal, 
as  in  the  genus  Murex.  The  name  of  this  genus  is  ex- 
pressive of  the  form  of  the  shell  valuta,  "  rolled  up  cylin- 
drically."  The  genus  contains  many  shells  of  considera- 
ble beauty,  and,  on  the  whole,  is  among  the  most  elegant 
known. 

The  recent  species  are  numerous,  besides  which  eigh- 
teen fossil  species  are  known. 

Fig.  84.  Genus  Buccinum.  Shell  univalve,  spiral, 
gibbous,  or  protuberant,  aperture  ovate,  ending 
in  a  canal  turned  to  the  right,  with  a  short 
beak ;  interior  lip  flattened,  fig.  84. 

The  direction  of  the  canal  towards  the 
right,  that  is,  from  the  exterior  lip,  is  very 
characteristic  of  this  genus.  The  name  Buc- 
cinum, signifies  a  trumpet,  or  horn,  but  is  oft- 
en misapplied,  since  many  of  the  species  are 
less  like  a  horn  than  those  belonging  to  other 
genera. 

This  genus  is  divided  into  several  families.  The  shells 
of  some  having  little  resemblance  to  each  other  in  form ; 
but  a  reference  to  the  peculiarity  of  the  beak  will  gene- 
rally distinguish  this  genus.  Fossil  and  recent. 

Fig.  85.  Genus  Strombus.  Shell  univalve,  spiral,  ex- 
panded ;  aperture  having  the  lip  unusually  di- 
lated, and  ending  in  a  canal,  inclined  towards  the 
left,  or  from  the  pillar,  fig.  85. 

One  species  of  this  genus  is  well  known  un- 
der the  name  of  Conch-shell,  the  interior  of 
which  is  of  a  beautiful  pink  color,  and  was  for- 
merly in  fashion  in  ornamental  jewelry. 


302  CONCHOLOGY. 

Some  members  of  this  genus  might  easily  be  mistaken 
for  Murices,  or  Buccina ;  but  the  Strombi  have  a.  depres- 
sion, or  sinus,  on  the  dilated  wing,  which  is  separate  from 
the  groove  at  the  base  of  the  shell,  next  the  pillar.  Atten- 
tion to  this  will  lead  to  the  distinction.  It  is  both  recent 
and  fossil. 

Fig.  86.     Genus  Murex.      Shelve  univalve,  spiral,  often 

f  formed  with  longitudinal  membranous  sutures ;  and 
beset  with  spines;  aperture  terminating  in  a  canal, 
either  straight  or  turned  up  backwards,  and  not  in- 
clining to  the  right  or  left,  fig.  86. 
The  very  peculiar  form  of  the  aperture  or  canal,  is  a 
very  distinctive  feature  in  this  genus.     This  is  oblong-oval, 
or  perfectly  oval,  and  does  not  gradually  contract  into  a 
canal,  like  the  Strombi  and  Buccina,  but  suddenly  opens 
into  it  at  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same,  width,  which  it  re- 
tains through  the  whole  length  of  the  beak. 

The  famous  Tyrian  purple  was  extracted  from  an  ani- 
mal inhabiting  one  species  of  this  genus.  A  single  vein 
near  the  head  contains  the  coloring  liquor ;  but  the  art  of 
dyeing,  in  latter  times,  has  disclosed  more  beautiful  and 
much  less  costly  colors  than  this  produces. 

The  name  Murex  means  rough,  or  rock-like,  a  designa- 
tion which  fails  to  apply  in  many  of  these  species.  It  is 
both  recent  and  fossil. 

Fig.  87.  Genus  Turbo.  Shell  univalve,  spiral ;  ap- 
erture contracted,  round,  and  entire.  Fig.  87. 
One  of  the  best  distinctions  of  this  genus 
is  the  round  aperture.  The  shells  often 
closely  resemble  those  of  the  Trochus  genus, 
but,  in  these,  the  aperture  is  angular,  often 
the  only  mark  of  distinction  between  the  two 
genera. 

The  Turbo  might  at  first  be  mistaken  for  the  spire  of 
another  shell,  but  its  unbroken  base  and  round  aperture 
will  generally  distinguish  the  genus.  The  name  Turbo, 
means  any  thing  which  whirls  around,  as  a  top,  in  refer- 
ence to  the  spiral  form  of  the  genus.  It  is  both  recent  and 
fossil. 

Genus  Conus.  Shell  univalve  and  turbinate.  Aper- 
ture effuse,  longitudinal,  linear,  toothless,  and  entire  at  the 


CONCHOLOGY. 


303 


Fig.  88.  base.  Columella  smooth,  base  attenuated, 
sometimes  marked  with  oblique  grooves. 
Aperture  sometimes  dilated;  whorls,  mostly 
flat,  often  channelled,  rarely  crowned. 

The  great  beauty  of  this  genus,  both  in 
form  and  coloring,  renders  it  highly  interest- 
ing and  valuable  to  the  lovers  of  the  science. 
The  rare  species  are  sought  after  with  avidity 
by  shell  collectors,  and  the  most  beautiful  kinds  often  sell 
for  considerable  sums.  The  Conus  gloria-maris,  and  the 
Conus  cedonulli,  sometimes  bring  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  guineas  for  single  shells. 

The  name  Conus,  a  cone,  refers  to  the  shape  of  the 
genus. 

Fig.  89.  Genus   Trochus.     A  spiral,  sub-conical 

univalve ;  aperture  four  sided,  and  some- 
what angular,  having  the  upper  part  of  the 
margin  converging  towards  the  pillar, 
which  is  oblique.  Fig.  89. 

In  some  species  the  aperture  tends  to  an 
oval  form,  but  these  are  distinguished  from 
the  Turbines  by  a  tooth-like  projection.  It 
must,  however,  be  confessed,  that  there  is 
much  difficulty  in  distinguishing  some  specimens  of  these 
two  genera  from  each  other.  In  general  the  Trochi  have 
the  form  of  a  pointed  cone,  capable  of  standing  nearly 
erect  on  their  bases.  The  word  Trochus  has  a  similar 
meaning  to  Turbo — the  common  name  is  top  shell,  or  but- 
ton shell,  the  shape  being  similar  to  that  of  a  common 
spinning  top  or  an  ancient  conical  button. 

Fig.  90.  Genus  Helix.  Shell  univalve,  spiral, 
translucent,  brittle;  aperture  coarctate,  or 
contracted,  lunate  or  circular,  having  the 
segment  of  another  circle  taken  from  the 
whole  area,  fig.  90.  The  common  land  snail 
is  a  good  example  of  this  genus.  The 
whorls  are  contiguous,  and  the  body  of  the 
shell  always  forms  a  lunate  projection  into 
the  aperture,  and  this  character  will  distinguish  the  Heli- 
ces from  the  Trochi  and  Turbines.  Another  mark  of  the 
genus  is  tenuity,  or  thinness  and  translucency. 


304 


CONCHOLOGY. 


Fjg.  91.  Genus  Nerita.     Shell  univalve,  spiral ; 

gibbous,  flat  underneath,  aperture  semi- 
orbicular,  or  semi-lunar,  having  uniformly 
'  the  pillar  lip,  or  columella  straight.  Fig. 
91. 

The  Nerita  is  a  genus  well  character- 
ized, and  therefore  easily  distinguished,  the  straight  pillar 
lip  being  a  uniform  mark,  which  at  once  separates  them 
from  the  Helices,  which  their  forms  most  resemble.  No- 
thing can  exceed  the  beauty  and  delicacy  with  which 
some  of  these  shells  are  marked,  or  the  rich  tints  of^color 
with  which  others  are  stained.  It  is  both  recent  and 
fossil. 

Extinct  Fossil  Shells.  Such  shells  as  have  not  been 
found  in  the  recent,  or  living  state,  are  considered  as  ex- 
tinct. It  is  obvious  that  this  criterion  must,  however,  in 
the  present  state  of  knowledge,  be  exceedingly  uncertain, 
since  further  investigations  most  probably  will  show  that 
many  species  now  considered  as  lost,  will  be  found  still 
living.  Had  all  the  shells  unknown  to  Linnaeus,  been 
considered  extinct,  a  great  proportion  of  those  now  in  the 
cabinets  of  collectors,  would  have  been  among  the  lost 
number.  Still  there  is,  perhaps,  no  other  rule  by  which 
naturalists  can  be  guided,  than  to  consider  every  unfound 
species  of  shell,  as  well  as 
Fig.  92.  of  quadrupeds,  extinct,  though 

there  is  a  thousand  fold  great- 
er prospect  of  finding  new  spe- 
cies of  the  former,  than  of  the 
latter. 

Encrinite.  This  is  a  genus 
of  singular  and  curious  animals 
which  being  found  among  the 
lower  strata  of  rocks,  are  sup- 
posed, by  those  who  think  there 
were  successive  creations,  to 
have  been  among  the  first  in- 
habitants of  this  earth. 

The  Lily  Encrinite,  fig.  92, 
is  a  beautiful  fossil,  so  called 
from  its  resemblance  to  the 
form  of  that  flower.  It  was  an 


CONCHOLOGY. 


305 


acephalous  or  headless  animal,  attached  by  a  root-like  base, 
to  other  substances.  This  base  was  jointed  as  seen  in  the 
figure,  and  on  its  top  were  placed  five  wedge  shaped  bones, 
which  constitute  the  smooth  circular  central  part,  around 
which  are  disposed  five  other  pieces,  called  ribs.  On  the 
upper  edge  of  these  are  placed  bones  forming  two  arms, 
each  of  which  divide  into  articulated  fingers,  and  tentacula, 
or  feelers,  which,  when  closed,  bear  a  lily-like  appearance, 
(as  in  the  figure,)  and  when  expanded,  form  nearly  a  cir- 
cular net  of  jointed  meshes.  These  on  closing,  would 
secure  the  prey  and  direct  it  into  the  stomach,  which, 
probably,  was  situated  in  a  central  cavity,  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  base.  These  animals  appear  to  have  had  con- 
siderable range  for  the  seizure  of  their  prey,  without  pos- 
sessing absolute  locomotion,  the  peculiar  mode  of  articu- 
lation, affording  them  a  great  degree  of  mobility,  with 
considerable  security  against  dislocation. 

These  remains  are  found  in  that  species  of  limestone 
called  oolite,  at  Stonefield,  in  England,  and  are  often  in 
such  abundance,  that  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  rock 
appears  to  be  formed  of  them. 

No  living  analogue  of  this  animal  is  known. 


Fig.  93.  Belemites.  This  is  a  conical,  spindle-shaped 
stone,  of  brown  radiating  spar,  generally  term- 
inating at  the  small  end  in  a  point,  and  having 
at  the  larger  end,  a  conical  cavity,  naturally  re- 
taining a  conical  testaceous  body,  divided  into 
chambers,  by  plain  concave  partitions,  and  pier- 
ced by  a  siphuncle,  or  orifice,  fig.  93. 

This  extinct  fossil  occurs  in  great  abundance 
in  the  kind  of  limestone  called  lias,  in  several 
parts  of  England.  It  is  also  found  in  the  newer 
limestone  groups  of  this  country. 


Fig.  94. 


Ammonites.  A  multiocular,  or  many 
celled,  spiral  shell,  with  contiguous  appar- 
ent turns ;  the  chambers  being  divided  by 
winding  partitions,  and  pierced  by  a  siphun- 
cle or  winding  orifice,  placed  at  the  outer 
side,  fig.  94. 

More  than  seventy  species  of  this  fossil 
are  found,  and  have  been  determined  and 
26* 


306  CONCHOLOOY. 

named  by  the  English  geologists.  It  is  found  in  the  lime- 
stones of  different  names  and  ages,  and  also  in  chalk  and 
clay.  No  living  analogue  of  this  genus,  has  ever  been 
discovered. 

Fig.  95.  Orthoceratites.  A  multiocular,  and  slightly 
bent,  cylindrical,  or  slightly  conical  univalve 
shell ;  the  chambers  separated  by  a  plain  septa, 
concave  towards  the  larger  end,  and  pierced  with 
a  siphuncle,  fig.  95. 

This  is  considered  one  of  the  earliest  creations, 
by  those  who  suppose  that  the  days  of  creation, 
were  indefinite  periods,  and  yet  it  is  a  shell  of  great  com- 
plexity, showing  that  the  most  simple  organizations,  do  not 
necessarily  belong  to  the  lowest  strata. 

Nautilus.  A  many  celled  spiral  univalve, 
the  turns  contiguous,  the  outer  one  includ- 
ing the  others ;  the  chambers  separated  by 
plain,  or  nearly  plain  partitions,  placed  trans- 
versely, and  concave  outwards ;  these  are 
perforated  by  shelly  tubes,  connected  by  a 
tubular  aperture,  running  across  the  chambers,  so  as  to 
form  a  complete  siphunculus,  fig.  96. 

To  observe  the  chambers  and  siphuncle,  the  shell  must 
be  sawn  into  two  parts  longitudinally.  It  is  both  fossil 
and  recent. 

The  name  Nautilus  signifies  sailor,  and  under  this  term 
was  formerly  included  the  Argonauta,  which,  from  its 
supposed  skill  in  sailing,  gave  name  to  the  whole. 

The  great  difference  in  the  internal  structure  of  the 
shells  have  induced  subsequent  conchologists  to  separate 
the  genera.  The  present  Argonauta  is  the  true  sailor, 
though  the  credit  is  popularly  given  to  the  "  Nautilus." 
which  it  is  said,  "taught  men  how  to  sail." 

There  is  a  considerable  number  of  species  of  this  genus, 
both  fossil  and  recent,  some  of  which  are  so  small  as  only 
to  be  defined  by  means  of  a  microscope,  while  others  are 
nearly  a  foot  in  diameter. 

Fossil  Insects.  Insects,  owing  to  the  delicacy  of  their 
structure,  and  the  nature  of  the  substance  which  enters 
into  their  composition,  appear,  generally,  to  be  unfitted  to 


FOSSIL  FISHES.  307 

sustain  those  changes  which  convert  animal  substances  into 
fossils,  and  hence  few  insects  have  been  found  in  this  state. 
The  crustaceous  coverings  of  the  bodies  and  limbs,  and  the 
hard  wing-cases  of  a  few  genera,  are  the  chief,  and  per- 
haps the  only  fossils  which  can  be  referred  to  this  class. 

Fig.  97.  The    Trilobite,  or  what  is    called  in 

England  the  Dudley  Fossil,  fig.  97,  is  con- 
sidered by  some  an  insect,  but  by  others  a 
bivalve  shell.  Its  superior  covering,  the 
only  part  distinctly  preserved,  is  oblong, 
ovate,  convex,  and  marginated ;  the  ante- 
rior, wider  part,  is  gibbous,  and  furnished 
with  two  semilunar  tubercular  projections 
resembling  eyelids ;  and  posterior  to,  and 
on  the  inner  side  of  each  of  these,  are  two 
round  tubercles.  Adjoining  to  this  part,  commences  a 
series  of  scale-like  transverse  slips,  so  disposed,  that  the 
three  rows  of  these  connected  slips,  form  three  longitudi- 
nal transversely  divided  lobes,  gradually  diminishing  to 
the  lower  termination.  In  some  specimens,  the  fossil  is 
nearly  globular,  showing  that  the  animal  had  the  power 
of  coiling  or  folding  himself  together,  like  the  millipede. 
It  is  doubtful  how  this  animal  accomplished  locomotion, 
since  it  is  not  certain  that  any  indications  of  legs  and  feet 
have  been  observed.  This  insect  fossil  has  been  found 
four  or  five  inches  in  length,  though  the  common  size  is 
much  less. 

It  occurs  abundantly  in  the  organic  limestone  formation 
at  Trenton  Falls,  New  York. 

Fossil  Fishes.  Mr.  Parkinson  says,  that  "  The  fossil 
lemains  of  fishes  are  found  in  such  various  states,  under 
such  different  circumstances,  and  in  the  formations  of  such 
distant  periods,  as  cannot  but  lead  the  zealous  inquirer  to 
expect  that  he  shall  derive  from  their  examination,  inform- 
ation of  considerable  importance." 

The  fish,  in  some  specimens,  are  found  nearly  entire, 
the  harder  parts,  "  all  in  their  natural  situations,  with  their 
scales,  and  even  skin  preserved.  In  others,  all  the  other 
parts  are  removed  except  the  skeleton,  the  bones  of  which 
either  retain  their  original  relative  situations,  or  have  un- 
dergone considerable  distortion,  or  even  dislocation.  In 
some  instances,  not  only  separation  of  these  parts  has  ta- 


308  FOSSIL  FISHES. 

* 

ken  place,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  skeleton  has  been  re- 
moved."— Organic  Remains,  277. 

There  is,  probably,  no  class  of  animals,  the  remains  of 
which  are  found  in  the  fossil  state,  that  are  capable  of  be- 
ing referred  to  so  many  living  analogues  as  fishes.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Lacepede,  more  than  thirty  Asiatic,  Afri- 
can, and  American  species,  have  been  found  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Verona,  in  Italy.  The  most  celebrated  locality 
of  fossil  fish  is  at  Monte-Bolca,  in  Italy,  and  it  cannot  be 
doubted,  that  the  catastrophe,  whatever  it  might  have  been, 
which  caused  this  vast  accumulation  of  the  finny  tribes, 
must  have  been  almost  instantaneous,  and  that  the  fishes 
were  not  only  suddenly  deprived  of  life,  but  immediately 
afterwards  buried  in  the  deposite  where  they  are  now 
found.  This  appears  from  the  singular  circumstance,  that 
one  fish  was  found  in  the  very  act  of  swallowing  another, 
having  apparently  had  not  sufficient  time  before  it  died  to 
let  go  its  prey.  Now,  when  any  fish  (especially  if  fur- 
nished with  an  air  bladder)  dies,  it  remains  at  the  bottom 
of  the  water  for  two  or  three  days,  it  then  rises  to  the  sur- 
face, decays,  and  the  bones  sink  to  the  bottom.  Hence,  if 
some  time  had  elapsed  between  the  death  of  this  fish  and 
its  burial,  it  would,  instead  of  being  caught  in  the  earth, 
have  rose  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  at  least  separa- 
ted from  the  victim  it  was  about  to  swallow.  This  is 
probably  the  reason  why  fossil  fish  are  so  rare,  even  among 
strata  known  by  other  remains  to  have  been  deposited  from 
the  sea.  They  first  rise  to  the  top  of  the  water,  after  be- 
ing deprived  of  life,  where  they  remain  until  the  flesh 
is  so  decomposed,  that  the  bones  separate,  and  are  dis 
persed.  We  may,  therefore,  conclude,  that  in  most,  if  not 
in  all  instances,  where  fossil  fish  are  found,  they  must  have 
died  and  been  buried  by  some  extraordinary  catastrophe  01 
convulsion. 

Besides  the  proof  just  adduced  of  the  suddenness  of  the 
revolutions  which  have  entombed  fishes,  in  almost  all 
cases,  the  remains  have  been  found  in  postures  indicating 
a  violent  death.  Thus,  at  Eisleben,  in  Thuringia,  where 
there  is  a  locality  of  ichthyolites,  the  fish  are  in  every 
possible  attitude,  some  of  them  three  feet  long,  often  lying 
on  their  backs,  or  recurved  into  constrained  positions, 
with  their  heads  crushed  and  disfigured.  The  strata  en- 
closing them  is  a  marly  slate,  impregnated  with  copper  and 
bitumen. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  SHELLS  IN  STRATA.  309 

The  fish  at  Monte-Bolca  are  by  some  thought  to  owe 
their  destruction,  and  the  origin  of  the  rock  in  which  they 
are  enclosed,  to  an  adjoining  volcano.  The  formation  in 
which  they  are  found  is  a  marly  slate.  This,  though  not 
volcanic,  might  have  arisen  from  the  disturbance  of  a  vol- 
cano. The  remains  as  now  found,  show  that  most  of  the 
fish  were  enclosed  in  the  earth  while  in  an  entire  state,  and 
many  of  them  are  still  so  perfect,  that  their  generas  have 
been  determined,  as  the  following  list,  among  others,  found 
there,  is  sufficient  to  show.  The  shark,  ray,  file-fish,  sun- 
fish,  globe-fish,  trumpet-fish,  pike,  silurus,  herring,  pipe- 
fish, cod-fish,  blenny,  goby,  mackerel,  bull-head,  gurnard, 
gilt-head,  perch,  flounder,  flying-fish,  eel,  dory,  and  many 
others. 

Thus  it  may  be  observed,  that  although  the  remains  of 
most  quadrupeds  are  those  of  extinct  species,  a  great  pro- 
portion of  the  fossil  fishes  are  those  of  living  genera. 

Arrangement  of  shells  in  strata.  Although,  as  stated 
at  the  beginning  of  this  article,  the  succession  in  which 
organic  remains  occur  in  the  strata  from  below  upwards, 
coincides,  in  a  general  sense,  perfectly  with  the  succes- 
sion in  which  they  were  created,  that  is,  plants,  and  "  the 
moving  creature  that  hath  life,"  and  the  birds,  were  form- 
ed before  the  quadrupeds  and  man ;  still  this  general  fact 
proves  nothing  with  respect  to  the  "  successive  develop- 
ment of  organization,"  as  some  have  attempted  to  show. 
Could  it  be  proved  that  from  the  most  simple  organization, 
found  in  the  lower  strata,  there  was  a  regular  gradation  to- 
wards the  most  complex,  there  might  exist  some  ground  for 
a  pretence,  that  there  had  been  a  gradual  and  constant  im- 
provement in  the  works  of  creation,  leading  to  the  atheisti- 
cal supposition,  that  nature  had  improved  by  experience. 
But  in  detail,  this  gradual  development  of  organization  does 
not  hold  true,  since  animals  of  a  more  complex  structure 
are  often  found  in  deeper  strata,  or  below  those  which  are 
less  so. 

"  It  has  been  conjectured  by  some  naturalists,"  says 
Mr.  Parkinson,  "  who  had  become  convinced  of  the  com- 
paratively late  creation  of  land  animals,  and  of  man,  that 
the  peopling  of  this  planet  had  commenced  in  enduing 
with  the  principle  of  life  beings  of  the  simplest  forms 
and  organizations,  and  that  by  the  influence  of  certain  ex- 
ternal causes,  acting  through  passing  ages,  those  changes 


310  ARRANGEMENT  OF  SHELLS  IN  STRATA. 

had  been  gradually  wrought  in  succeeding  animals,  from 
which  have  resulted  the  numerous  differences  which  con- 
stitute the  various  tribes,  rising  from  the  almost  lifeless 
sponge  to  the  highly  complex  and  more  perfect  animal, 
man.  On  this  hypothesis,  it  might  be  expected  that  those 
beings  which  had  possessed  life  under  its  most  simple 
modifications,  would  be  found  in  the  earliest  strata  ;  and 
that  in  proportion  to  the  lateness  of  the  period  at  which 
the  strata  had  been  formed,  would  be  the  degree  of  com- 
plexity in  the  organization  of  the  inhabitants  whose  re- 
mains they  contain.  But  investigation  has  ascertained 
that  such  a  conjecture,  with  respect  to  shells,  is  ill-founded. 
In  the  carboniferous  and  mountain  limestone  are  discovered 
the  remains  of  shells,  of  apparently  the  earliest  creation, 
which  are  unexpectedly  found,  with  hardly  an  exception, 
to  exceed  in  complexity  of  structure  all  the  shells  which 
have  been  discovered,  either  in  any  subsequent  formation, 
or  living  in  our  present  seas.  It  is  in  this  early  creation 
that  those  shells  are  found  which  possess  that  complicated 
structure,  very  rarely  found  in  shells  of  this  day,  which 
enabled  their  inhabitants  to  rise  and  sink  with  them  in  the 
water.  Such  are  the  many  chambered  univalves,  the  Nau- 
tilus, Ammonites,  Orthoceratites,  &c." — Parkinson's  Org. 
Remains,  p.  254. 

The  hypothesis  of  the  gradual  development  of  organic 
life,  which  it  is  thus  shown  cannot  be  sustained  by  facts, 
is  both  skeptical  and  unphilosophical.  Its  object  is  to 
prove  that  after  the  simplest  form  of  plants  and  animals 
had  existed  for  ages,  from  these  there  gradually  resulted 
other  plants  and  animals  of  more  complex  kinds,  and  so 
on  in  progressive  improvement,  until  both,  during  the 
lapse  of  myriads  of  ages,  arrived  at  their  present  slate  of 
perfection.  It  is  skeptical,  because  it  either  acknowledges 
no  Creator,  or  denies  his  power  to  form  at  once  the  most 
perfect  beings ;  as  though  the  same  power  which  created 
an  oyster,  wanted  the  experience  of  millions  of  years  to 
form  quadrupeds  and  man.  Thus  showing  that  the  work 
of  creation,  for  this  reason,  instead  of  being  finished  in 
six  days,  required  millions  of  years.  It  is  unphilosophi- 
cal, inasmuch  as  it  supposes  that  new  genera  and  species, 
of  different  and  more  complex  kinds,  have  been  derived 
from  others  which  were  less  so;  whereas,  in  truth,  we 
find  that  nature  is  invariable  in  this  respect ;  not  a  solitary 
instance  being  known  where  this  has  happened  either  in 


MARINE    AND    FRESH    WATER    SHELLS.  311 

plants  or  animals.  Will  any  one,  in  his  senses,  believe 
that  the  oak  ever  sprung  from  the  polypod  or  mushroom, 
that  the  flying  fish  carne  from  the  sponge,  or  that  man 
began  his  race  in  the  form  and  capacity  of  an  ape  ?  If 
this  is  ridiculous,  the  doctrine  of  progressive  organic  de- 
velopment is  equally  so,  since  it  is  founded  on  these  very 
suppositions. 

Alternating  Marine  and  Fresh  Water  Shells.  It  has 
been  supposed  that  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  there  was 
sufficient  evidence  of  alternating  marine  and  fresh  water 
shells,  imbedded  in  strata,  and  that,  therefore,  those  parts 
of  the  earth  where  such  phenomena  exist,  must,  at  some 
remote  period,  have  been  alternately  covered  by  salt  and 
fresh  water.  In  France,  there  occur  beds  of  gypsum  and 
marl,  in  which  are  found  the  remains  of  quadrupeds,  and 
above  these  occur  marine  shells ;  above  which  there  is 
another  fresh  water  formation. 

The  gypsum  and  marl  being  considered  fresh  water  de- 
posites,  it  is  supposed  that  the  bones  found  in  them,  be- 
longed to  animals  which  inhabited  the  shores  of  the  lake, 
which  once  existed  there. 

From  such  facts,  Cuvier  and  Brongniart  inferred,  that 
these  different  beds  demonstrated  the  repeated  alternations 
of  the  sea  and  of  fresh  water  on  the  same  tract,  and  that 
while  the  sea  deposited  marbles  and  slates,  the  lakes  in 
their  turn  formed  gypsum,  marls,  &c.  But  while  maturing 
such  opinions,  these  naturalists  found  it  necessary  to  ad- 
mit, that  gypsum  might  be  formed  from  salt,  as  well  as 
from  fresh  water,  and  finally,  that  marine  and  river  shells 
were  really  mixed  together.  Still  Cuvier  maintains  the 
alternation  of  fresh  and  salt  water  formations ;  which  doc- 
trine is,  however,  strongly  opposed  by  several  naturalists 
of  great  ability.  Metherie  objects  entirely  to  the  suppo- 
sition, that  because  the  bones  of  land  animals,  and  fresh 
water  shells,  are  found  in  these  formations,  that  therefore 
there  must  have  existed  a  fresh  water  lake,  but  sees  no 
difficulty  in  supposing  that  both  were  carried  where  they 
are  now  found,  by  the  current  of  a  river,  which  also  de- 
posited the  matter  in  which  they  exist,  in  the  sea,  the  wa- 
ter gradually  retiring  as  the  deposition  was  formed. 

M.  M.  Brard,  and  St.  Fond,  are  of  opinion,  that  all  the 
shells  found  in  these  depositions,  originally  existed  in  the 
same  water ;  but  that  in  process  of  time,  perhaps  from  the 


312  MARINE    AND    FRESH    WATER    SHELLS. 

increase  of  the  saltness  of  the  sea,  a  separation  took  place, 
the  inhabitants  of  the  shells  which  are  at  present  found  in 
the  fresh  water  formation,  having  migrated  to  situations 
more  congenial  to  their  natures. 

A  dispute  now  commenced  between  these  naturalists, 
and  Cuvier  and  Brongniart,  on  the  points  of  distinction 
between  marine  and  fresh  water  shells,  and  in  the  course 
of  which,  the  reader  will  find,  1st.  that  some  shells  live 
both  in  fresh  and  salt  waters;  thus,  the  Patellse  of  rivers 
and  those  of  the  sea,  differ  hardly  at  all  in  their  shells. 
2nd.  That  in  many  other  instances,  besides  that  mentioned 
by  Cuvier,  land  and  sea  shells  have  been  found  mixed  with 
each  other;  thus,  at  Grignon,  Lamarck  found  forty-eight 
river  and  land  shells,  among  those  which  were  decidedly 
marine,  and  all  of  them  in  the  fossil  state.  3d.  It  appears 
that  the  comparative  thinness  of  land  and  river  shells,  as 
a  distinctive  mark  between  them  and  those  of  the  sea, 
though  often  a  true  test,  is  not  always  so.  And  4th,  it  ap- 
pears that  Cuvier  and  Brongniart  had  founded  their  opin- 
ion of  the  fresh  water  origin  of  the  upper  bed  of  gypsum, 
in  the  Paris  formation,  on  the  presence  of  tiro  shells  only, 
which  they  considered,  of  course,  to  be  of  fresh  water 
growth ;  but  one  of  which,  Lamarck  supposed  to  be  a  sea 
shell. 

Now  all  these  appearances  may  readily  be  accounted 
for,  even  admitting  that  there  do  exist  fresh  and  salt  water 
formations  over  each  other,  by  supposing  that  such  places 
were  once  the  estuaries,  or  outlets  of  rivers,  into  the 
sea.  At  the  mouth  of  every  river  may  be  found  more  or 
less  fresh  water  shells,  mixed  with  those  of  the  sea.  It 
cannot  be  otherwise,  since  the  current  floats  these  light 
bodies,  after  being  separated  from  the  animal,  to  consider- 
able distances,  and  of  course  must  occasionally  deposit 
them  among  those  thrown  along  the  coast  by  the  sea.  It 
would  hence  seem,  that  the  revolutions  of  the  earth,  in- 
sisted on  by  Cuvier,  and  in  consequence  of  which  the  sea 
is  supposed  several  times  to  have  changed  its  bed,  and  to 
have  alternated  on  the  land  with  fresh  water,  are  no  longer 
to  be  considered,  in  accounting  for  the  changes  which  the 
earth  has  undergone. 

It  has  been  already  shown,  that  the  facts  observed  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Rhone,  will  account  for  the -mixture  of  ma- 
rine and  land  shells,  under  the  most  common  circumstan- 
ces. See  "  Delta  of  the  Rhone  in  the  Sea." 


GEOLOGY   AND    MOSAIC    HISTORY.  313 


COINCIDENCE  OF  GEOLOGY  WITH    THE    MOSAIC  HISTORY. 


Almost  from  the  commencement  of  geological  inves- 
tigations, designing  men  have  attempted  to  show,  that 
the  physical  history  of  the  earth,  and  that  of  the  creation, 
by  Moses,  could  not  be  reconciled — that  the  former  pre- 
sented facts  which  were  incompatible  with  the  statements 
of  the  latter,  and  therefore,  that  revelation  and  reason 
were  here  in  direct  opposition. 

Hence  it  was,  that  in  the  early  history  of  this  science, 
the  church  looked  with  jealousy  upon  these  investigations, 
and  even  went  so  far  as  to  restrict  philosophers  in  their 
pursuits,  or  at  least  in  their  publications,  and  to  denounce 
those  who  pretended  to  make  discoveries,  which  they 
could  not  reconcile  with  the  Mosaic  record. 

At  that  time,  it  is  true,  that  little  was  known  on  this 
subject,  and  these  alarming  facts  have  long  since  been 
shown  to  accord  entirely  with  revelation.  But  as  the 
earth  has  been  more  extensively  explored,  new  and  un- 
explained facts  have  been  constantly  unfolded,  and  these, 
in  their  turn,  have  been  made  to  bear  against  revelation  ; 
and  have  consequently,  in  many  instances,  operated 
against  the  free  inquiries  of  those  who  had  determined 
not  to  lift  their  hands  against  the  Holy  Scriptures,  though 
they  were  made  to  believe,  that  geology  presented  facts 
which  could  in  no  way  be  reconciled  with  the  common 
understanding  of  revelation. 

Judging  from  the  effects  of  causes  now  operating  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  it  has  been  supposed  impossible, 
that  the  deep  strata  of  its  crust  could  have  been  formed 
within  the  period  assigned  by  the  sacred  history.  The 
whole  earth,  indeed,  seemed  to  bear  such  marks  of  anti- 
quity, as  could  not  be  reconciled  with  any  hypothesis  of 
its  recent  origin.  Time  was,  therefore,  wanted:  for  the 
cosmogonist  found  that  it  was  impossible  to  bound  his 
speculations  within  the  narrow  limits  allowed  by  the 
sacred  historian.  It  was  consequently  necessary  that  hfl 
27 


314  COINCIDENCE    OF    GEOLOGY 

should  either  come  out  boldly  and  deny  that  authority, 
or  invent  some  new  interpretation  of  the  text,  by  which 
the  scope  of  his  speculations  should  be  free  and  un- 
bounded. 

In  this  dilemma,  the  celebrated  theorist,  Whiston,  in 
about  1696,  first  proposed  that  the  book  of  Genesis  should 
be  so  interpreted,  as  to  allow  theoretical  geologists  full 
and  ample  scope  for  their  cosmogony,  without  being  sus- 
pected of  heretical  opinions ;  and  thus  were  the  Scriptures 
made  to  bow  down  before  geology. 

This,  we  believe,  was  the  first  innovation  which  was 
made  upon  the  Mosaic  history,  for  the  accommodation  of 
geologists ;  but  certainly  not  the  last ;  for  at  the  present 
day  it  is  the  practice  of  some  philosophers,  and  even  those 
who  profess  their  belief  in  the  truth  of  the  Scriptures,  to 
interpret  them  for  the  express  accommodation  of  their  own 
understandings. 

Now,  if  a  geological,  or  any  other  fact,  contradicts  the 
Scriptures,  they  are  not  the  words  of  truth,  and  if  this  is 
the  case,  let  the  fact  be  shown ;  for  if  the  Scriptures  con- 
tradict the  truth,  they  cannot  be  of  divine  origin,  and, 
therefore,  ought  not  to  be  the  rule  of  our  faith ;  for  it  is 
certain,  that  truth  can  never  be  inconsistent  with  itself. 
But  before  we  reject  or  misinterpret  this  record,  let  us  be 
certain  that  our  facts  are  true  ones,  and  that  they  do  not 
coincide  with  the  plain  and  obvious  meaning  of  the  sacred 
text. 

We  have  the  satisfaction  of  believing,  that  the  systems 
of  Inspiration  and  Nature  have  both  emanated  from  the 
same  Divine  authority,  and  that  when  both  are  under- 
stood they  will  harmonize  with  each  other ;  and  it  will 
be  our  object  to  show,  in  the  following  pages,  that  even 
taking  the  Scriptures  in  their  most  obvious  sense,  there  is 
no  want  of  harmony  between  inspiration  and  natural  phe- 
nomena, so  far,  at  least,  as  relates  to  the  Mosaic  history, 
and  the  facts  of  geology. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  primitive  or  ancient  world,  is 
derived  entirely  from  two  sources,  viz.  first,  The  his- 
tory of  the  creation  by  Moses,  as  contained  in  the  first 
chapter  of  Genesis;  and  second,  The  investigations  of 
geology. 

The  information  to  be  derived  from  Genesis  is  of  various 
kinds,  and  of  the  highest  importance,  since  it  is  the  only 
icurce  whence  we  gain  any  consistent  account  of  the 


WITH  THE  MOSIAC  HISTORY.  315 

origin  of  the  universe  and  of  ourselves.  We  shall,  how- 
ever, confine  ourselves  chiefly  to  such  parts  as  relate  to 
geology,  and  shall  proceed  with  the  understanding  that 
this  history  is  from  an  inspired  pen ; — that  it  is  written  in 
a  manner  by  which  its  great  outlines  are  adapted  to  a  plain 
and  common  apprehension,  and  that  the  author,  in  this  re- 
spect, intended  his  words  should  be  received  in  their  most 
obvious  meaning. 


CREATION  OF  HEAVEN  AND  EARTH. 

"  In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heavens  and  the 
earth."  Gen.  i.  1. 

That  is,  in  the  beginning  of  time,  the  earth  was  created, 
for,  before  this,  there  was  nothing  by  which  time  could  be 
measured,  or  its  beginning  dated.  All  was  eternity. 

"  The  earth  was  without  form,  and  void,  and  darkness 
was  upon  the  face  of  the  deep."  V.  2. 

How  long  the  earth  continued  without  form,  and  in 
darkness  and  chaos,  we  have  no  means  of  knowing.  Had 
this  information  been  of  importance  to  man,  God  would 
have  revealed  it  to  Moses,  and  he  would  have  recorded  it 
for  our  use.  On  this  point,  therefore,  we  have  a  right  to 
conjecture,  and  may  believe,  without  the  least  violation  of 
the  sacred  text,  that  the  materials  of  which  the  earth  is 
composed,  were  created  a  thousand,  or  a  million  of  years 
before  they  were  brought  into  a  form  fit  for  the  habitation 
of  man. 

That  the  earth  was  not  from  eternity  is  shown  by  the 
first  words  of  the  history ;  for  eternity  has  no  beginning, 
and  what  is  created  cannot  always  have  been.  Besides, 
we  have  the  direct  testimony  of  inspiration,  that  there  was 
a  period  when  the  earth  did  not  exist.  "  Before  the  moun- 
tains were  brought  forth,  or  ever  thou  hadst  formed  the 
earth,  and  the  world,  even  from  everlasting  to  everlasting, 
thou  art  God."  Ps.  xc.  2.  Hence,  although  we  are  bound 
to  believe  that  this  world  had  a  beginning,  and  was  a  part 
of  the  work  of  creation,  still  there  is  nothing  on  record 
which  restricts  us  with  respect  to  its  antiquity.  Theoretical 
geologists  may,  therefoie,  allow  themselves  full  scope  in  this 
part  of  the  history,  with  respect  to  time,  provided  they  do 
not  go  beyond  the  "  beginning."  The  primitive  rocks,  in 


316  COINCIDENCE  OF  GEOLOGY 

which  no  organic  remains  exist,  we  may  consider,  without 
violation  of  Scripture  authority,  as  having  been  millions 
of  years  in  forming,  but  it  is  much  more  reasonable,  we 
conceive,  to  suppose,  that  at  some  unknown  period  they 
were,  like  the  other  parts  of  creation,  brought  into  existence 
at  the  immediate  command  of  the  Creator  ;  for,  not  being 
stratified,  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  their  formation 
was  a  work  of  time.  The  secondary  rocks,  containing  the 
remains  of  organized  beings,  stand  in  a  different  relation 
with  respect  to  time.  These  show,  by  their  stratified  struc- 
ture, that  they  were  gradually  deposited  from  a  fluid,  and, 
therefore,  that  time  was  consumed  in  their  formation.  But 
every  one  who  believes  the  Scriptures,  is  Sound  to  believe 
also,  that  since  these  rocks  contain  organized  substances, 
they  were  formed  since  that  period,  when  it  was  said,  "  Let 
the  waters,  under  the  Heaven,  be  gathered  into  one  place ; 
and  let  the  dry  land  appear,"  for,  before  that  period,  there 
is  no  account  of  the  creation  of  either  plants  or  animals. 

Whence  did  the  first  Light  emanate  ?  And  God  said 
let  there  be  light;  and  there  was  light.  In  Hebrew, 
"  light  was."  V.  3. 

This  is  the  first  particular  creative  act  stated  in  the  his- 
tory; the  first  verse  containing  merely  a  general  declara- 
tion that  the  heavens  and  the  earth  had  been  created ;  the 
manner  in  which  the  latter  was  brought  from  its  chaotic 
state,  into  a  condition  fit  for  the  residence  of  organic  be- 
ings, and  the  succession  in  which  these  beings  were  crea- 
ted, forming  the  succeeding  narrative. 

Various  opinions  have  been  advanced,  concerning  the 
nature  of  this  light,  and  the  source  whence  it  proceeded. 
Some  have  supposed  that  it  was  electrical,  and  others 
that  it  was  phosphorescent,  and,  in  both  cases,  that  it  did 
not  emanate  from  any  particular  point,  but  that  it  was 
diffused  through  the  space  surrounding  the  earth.  Others 
again  have  believed  that  it  proceeded  from  a  meteor, 
which  was  created  for  the  purpose  of  enlightening  the 
earth  during  the  first  three  days,  and  before  the  sun  was 
called  into  existence.  But  there  exists  no  analogy  for 
such  a  hypothesis ;  and  it  would  even  be  derogating  from 
the  Wisdom  and  Power  of  Him  who,  three  days  after- 
wards, set  the  great  lights  in  the  firmament,  to  suppose 
that  He  should  have  made  an  evanescent  one,  for  the  use 
of  the  earth,  while  as  yet  it  contained  neither  plant  nor 


WITH  THE  MOSAIC  HISTORY.  317 

animal.  There  is  no  instance  recorded,  where  the  crea- 
tive fiat  has  been  employed  for  such  a  purpose,  nor  does 
the  language  of  Moses  necessarily  imply,  that  the  sun 
and  moon  were  not  created  at  the  time  when  God  said, 
"  let  there  be  light."  When  we  come  to  the  fourth  day's 
work,  we  shall  attempt  to  show,  that  the  luminaries  had  a 
previous  creation,  but  were  first  made  to  shine  upon  the 
earth  on  that  day. 

"  And  God  divided  the  light  from  the  darkness."     V.  5. 

Whatever  might  have  been  the  source  whence  this  light 
proceeded,  it  is  plain  from  this  declaration,  that  it  could 
not  have  been  generally  diffused  around  the  earth,  for  had 
this  been  the  case,  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  apprehend 
how  it  could  have  been  divided  from  the  darkness.  On 
the  contrary,  the  terms  of  the  record  lead  to  the  belief, 
that  at  this  time  the  earth  had  commenced  her  diurnal 
revolutions,  and  the  light  emanating  from  a  fixed  point, 
was  divided  from  the  darkness  by  the  first  succession  of 
day  and  night.  This,  indeed,  is  affirmed  by  what  imme- 
diately follows.  "  And  God  called  the  light,  day ;  the 
darkness  he  called  night ;  and  the  evening  and  the  morn- 
ing were  the  first  day." 

Creation  of  the  Firmament.  "  And  God  said,  let  there 
be  a  firmament  in  the  midst  of  the  waters,  and  let  it  divide 
the  waters  from  the  waters."  V.  6. 

Firmament.  Heb.  Expansion.  The  original  word  is 
Rakiah,  which  comes  from  a  root,  signifying  to  stretch 
out,  or  expand  like  a  curtain.  It  also  means,  to  make 
hard  and  firm  by  treading,  stamping,  or  beating  icith  a 
hammer.*  But  it  appears  to  be  the  former  signification 
only,  which  applies  to  the  present  case. 

It  is  apparent  that  Moses  intended  to  adapt  his  account 
of  the  creation  to  unlettered  common  sense,  and  to  de- 
scribe natural  events  as  they  would  have  struck  the  eye 
of  a  common  observer.  Hence  the  firmament  is  called 
heaven,  because  it  is  over  our  heads,  and  for  the  same 
reason,  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  in  v.  15,  are  said  to  be 
placed  in  the  firmament.  Now  heaven,  as  the  word  is 
here  employed,  means  nothing  more  than  the  blue  vault 
of  the  sky ;  and  therefore  is  synonymous  with  firmament. 
Firmament  is  the  atmosphere  which  we  breathe,  and 

*  Bush  on  Genesis. 

27* 


318  COINCIDENCE  OF  GEOLOGY 

which  science  has  taught,  reaches  to  the  height  of  about 
forty-five  miles  from  every  part  of  the  earth's  surface. 
The  stars  are  millions  of  miles  beyond  this  firmament, 
but  since  they  are  seen  through,  they  appear  to  the  eye  to 
be  placed  in  it,  and  the  Mosaic  history  is  adapted  to  this 
illusion.  This  is  one  among  many  existing  proofs,  that 
the  narrative  of  the  creation  was  intended  to  describe 
natural  phenomena  as  they  meet  the  eye,  rather  than  to 
give  a  system  of  physics  to  the  minds  of  philosophers. 

"  Ana  God  made  a  firmament,  and  divided  the  waters 
which  were  under  the  firmament,  from  the  waters  which 
were  above  the  firmament."  V.  7. 

By  this  act,  the  atmosphere  was  made  to  absorb  a  part 
of  the  waters  which  had  previously  covered  the  earth,  and 
thus  to  elevate  them  above  the  surface.  The  quantity  of 
moisture  contained  in  the  atmosphere,  differs  greatly  in 
different  countries,  and  at  different  times ;  but  that  it  is 
capable  of  elevating  large  quantities  of  water,  is  sufficient- 
ly proved  by  the  fall  of  dew  and  rain  upon  the  earth.  The 
atmosphere  is  incapable  of  absorbing  any  of  the  solid  in- 
gredients with  which  the  water  on  the  earth  is  mixed ;  a 
striking  mark  of  design,  for  were  the  salt  of  the  sea  taken 
up  with  its  waters,  and  thrown  upon  the  earth,  in  the  form 
of  rain,  not  only  almost  the  whole  vegetable  kingdom 
would  be  destroyed,  but  also  all  terrene  animals. 


MOSAIC,  AND  NATURAL  SYSTEMS  OF  PLANTS. 

After  the  sea  was  formed,  by  the  gathering  of  the  wa- 
ters into  one  place,  and  the  dry  land  made  to  appear,  the 
earth  being  thus  prepared  for  the  growth  of  vegetation, 
and  the  residence  of  organized  beings,  then  "  God  said  let 
the  earth  bring  forth  grass,  and  the  herb  yielding  seed, 
and  the  fruit  tree  yielding  fruit  after  his  kind,  whose  seed 
is  in  itself  upon  the  earth  ;  and  it  was  so."  V.  1 1. 

Here  we  find  a  remarkable  coincidence  between  the  di- 
visions of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  by  Moses,  and  the  most 
improved  systems  of  natural  botany,  at  the  present  day. 

In  the  1 1th  verse,  instead  of  grass,  the  Hebrew  means 
tender,  or  budding  grass,*  or  grass  sprouts ;  thus  appa- 
rently intending  to  include  all  the  small,  or  inferior  plants, 

*  Marginal  reference. 


WITH    THE    MOSAIC    HISTORY.  319 

with  which  the  earth  is  clothed,  and  which  to  common  ob- 
servation spring  up  without  seeds,  or  are  propagated  hy 
their  roots.  Many  low  plants,  of  the  moss  kind,  also  bear 
capsules,  which  appear  like  buds,  though  they  produce  no 
flowers,  or  visible  seeds;  and  these,  in  popular  language, 
would  come  under  the  general  denomination  of  grass. 

The  terms,  therefore,  warrant  us  in  concluding,  that  in 
this  division  the  author  intended  to  embrace,  generally, 
those  plants  which  give  verdure  to  the  earth,  but  whose 
seeds  were  concealed,  or  not  apparent,  and  thus  to  distin- 
guish them  from  "  the  herb  yielding  seed,"  or  those  whose 
seeds  form  the  most  obvious  part  of  the  plant.  If  there 
is  nothing  unreasonable  in  this  conclusion,  then  this  divis- 
ion includes  those  tribes  now  known  under  the  title  of 
Cryptogamous,  or  flowerless  plants. 

In  this  division,  there  are  neither  flowers  nor  apparent 
seeds;  reproduction  being  effected  by  parts,  termed  spo- 
rules,  as  in  the  flags,  ferns,  mosses,  &c. 

The  "  herb  yielding  seed,"  by  the  most  obvious  con- 
struction, applies  to  that  division  of  plants  now  called  Mo- 
nocotyledonous,  or  such  as  produce  seed,  with  a  single 
cotyledon  or  seed  lobe,  as  wheat,  barley,  and  the  grasses. 
In  many  of  the  useful  plants  of  this  class,  the  part  most 
apparent  is  the  seed,  as  in  the  saccharum,  (sugar  cane,) 
sorghum,  (broom  corn,)  oat,  wheat,  rye,  millet,  &c.,  and 
hence,  "  seed-yielding  plants,"  would  be  one  of  the  most 
natural  distinctions  between  these,  and  the  cryptogamia, 
and  smaller  grasses,  where  the  reproductive  parts  are  ei- 
ther entirely  concealed,  or  so  small  as  to  be  apparent  only 
by  close  inspection. 

"  The  tree  yielding  fruit,  whose  seed  is  in  itself,"  that 
is,  in  the  fruit,  is  a  description  which  clearly  forms  a  third 
division  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  This  division  was  un- 
doubtedly .intended  to  include  the  larger  vegetables,  or 
trees,  properly  so  called,  and  the  description  applies  with 
singular  accuracy  to  many  of  the  most  common  fruit-bear- 
ing plants,  in  most  parts  of  the  world.  The  apple,  pear, 
peach,  almond,  grape,  bread-fruit,  orange,  chestnut,  bean, 
pea,  melon,  and  many  other  domestic,  as  well  as  wild 
plants,  which  from  the  most  ancient  times  have  been  best 
known,  and  most  esteemed,  bear  their  seed  within  their 
fruits,  and  are  thus  readily  and  naturally  distinguished 
from  wheat,  barley,  and  other  plants  of  this  kind,  where 
the  seed  is  apparent  to  the  sight. 


320  COINCIDENCE    OF    GEOLOGY 

Th/s  division,  therefore,  corresponds  to  the  present  class 
in  Natural  Botany,  called  the  Dicotyledonous,  or  plants 
whose  seeds  consist  of  two  cotyledons,  or  seed  lobes,  and 
which  class,  besides  those  already  mentioned,  includes 
many  of  the  largest  and  most  important  vegetables. 

Thus  we  arrive  at  the  surprising  fact,  that  the  three  grand 
divisions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  made  by  Moses,  not 
merely  bear  an  analogy  to  the  most  improved  Natural 
Systems  of  Botany,  of  the  present  day,  but  that  the  two 
systems,  in  their  great  outlines,  are  nea'rly  identical ;  and  it 
is  worthy  of  notice,  that  the  existence  of  this  analogy  is 
owing  to  the  perfection  to  which  natural  botany  has  been 
brought,  by  the  recent  investigations  of  profound  natural- 
ists. Thus  do  philosophers,  unawares,  confirm  the  inspi- 
ration of  the  scripture,  for  there  is  not  the  slightest  prob- 
ability that  the  system  of  Moses  could  have  been  founded 
on  botanical  knowledge  then  existing,  and  therefore  could 
not  have  been  derived  from  any  human  source. 

We  do  not  pretend  that  the  descriptions  of  Moses  are 
so  definite  as  to  include  all  the  plants  of  each  of  the  pres- 
ent classes,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  the  others.  But  that 
his  definitions  apply  to  the  most  common  and  useful  vege- 
tables of  each  class,  and  are  such  as  to  form  natural  dis- 
tinctions between  these,  which  would  be  apparent  to  a 
common  observer,  it  is  thought  we  have  made  fully  to  ap- 
pear, and  thus  to  have  shown  that  the  progress  of  a  hu- 
man science  towards  perfection,  has  only  served  to  approx- 
imate its  great  outlines  more  nearly  to  a  system  founded 
on  an  inspired  knowledge  of  nature,  and  written  3000 
years  ago. 

From  this  we  may  infer  the  impropriety  of  wresting  the 
plain  and  obvious  meaning  of  the  Scriptures,  so  to  make 
them  agree  with  what  we  call  scientific  facts,  and  especial- 
ly on  subjects  still  in  controversy,  as  are  many  of  those 
belonging  to  geology.  If  we  will  but  let  the  sacred  wri- 
tings stand  until  our  sciences  become  perfect,  we  shall 
then  see  their  coincidence,  and  if  we  do  not,  it  will  be  in 
time  to  amend  the  Scriptures  so  as  to  make  out  the  agree- 
ment, when  it  is  clearly  proved  that  science  is  right,  and 
Scripture  wrong.  We  refer  here,  particularly,  to  the 
translation  of  the  days  of  creation,  into  indefinite  periods, 
a  subject  which  we  shall  examine  in  its  proper  place. 

The  discoveries  of  geology,  with  respect  to  the  order  in 
which  fossil  plants,  shells,  and  bones  occur,  show  a  con- 


WITH  THE  MOSAIC  HISTORY.  321 

sistcncy  with  Scripture,  little  less  extraordinary  than  that 
we  have  shown  to  exist  between  the  Mosaic  and  modern 
botany. 

In  the  order  of  creation,  we  have  seen  that  plants  of  the 
lowest  grades  were  first  brought  into  existence,  and  that 
those  of  the  more  perfect  kinds  were  formed  afterwards. 
In  the  strata  of  the  earth,  the  same  corresponding  order 
exists  ;  the  Cryptogamous  plants  being  found  deepest,  and 
below  those  of  the  Monocotyledonous  tribes;  while  above 
these,  the  Dicotyledonous  species  occur.  We  shall  throw 
the  details  of  these,  and  other  coincidences,  into  the  form 
of  a  table,  a  few  pages  hence. 

Sun  and  Moon  made  to  appear.  The  work  of  the 
fourth  day  consisted  in  setting  the  great  lights,  and  also  the 
stars,  in  the  firmament. 

"  And  God  made  two  great  lights,  the  greater  light  to 
rule  the  day,  and  the  lesser  light  to  rule  the  night;  he 
made  the  stars  also."  V.  16. 

"  And  God  set  them  in  the  firmament  of  the  heaven,  to 
give  light  upon  the  earth ;  and  to  rule  over  the  day."  V. 
17,  18. 

The  original  word  for  made,  is  not  the  same  with  that 
rendered  create.  The  latter  term  signifies  re-form,  or 
renovate,  while  the  former  more  often  implies  constituted, 
appointed,  or  set  apart.* 

The  language  does  not,  therefore,  necessarily  imply 
that  the  sun  and  moon  were  created  on  the  fourth  day, 
but  only,  we  conceive,  that  they  were  made  to  appear  and 
act  as  rulers  over  the  day  and  the  night,  at  that  time.  If 
we  suppose,  with  others,  that  Moses  stated  the  story  of 
the  creation,  as  it  would  have  appeared  to  human  eyes  at 
the  time,  these  luminaries  would  undoubtedly  have  looked 
like  a  new  creation  ;  when,  in  truth,  they  might  have  ex- 
isted from  the  time  when  it  was  said,  "  Let  there  be 
light." 

We  infer  this  from  the  circumstance,  that  the  newly 
formed  earth  must  have  been  surrounded  with  dense  va- 
pors, since,  until  the  third  day,  the  atmosphere  rested  en- 
tirely on  a  continuous  ocean  of  water.  The  mist  spoken 
of  afterwards  shows  that  the  newly  formed  earth  supplied 


*  Bush  on  Genesis. 


322  COINCIDENCE  OF  GEOLOGY 

the  firmament  with  abundance  of  moisture,  for  some  time 
after  the  dry  land  had  appeared.  We  know  that,  at  the 
present  day,  aqueous  exhalations  are  peculiarly  dense  on 
the  ocean,  and  that  they  often  hide  the  heavenly  bodies  for 
many  successive  days.  Hence,  when  nothing  but  oceans 
existed  on  the  surface  of  the  globe,  with  the  same  atmos- 
phere which  we  have  at  this  day,  it  certainly  cannot  be 
unreasonable  to  conclude,  that  the  sun  and  moon  might 
have  been  entirely  obscured,  and  prevented  from  throwing 
their  direct  rays  upon  the  earth,  for  the  space  of  three 
days.  During  this  time  there  would  have  been  a  diffusive 
light,  while  the  sources  whence  it  came  would  be  invisible. 

Now,  on  the  third  day,  the  dry  land  appeared,  and, 
therefore,  the  source  of  these  exhalations  became  dimin- 
ished, so  that  they,  of  course,  became  less  dense  than 
before.  Under  such  circumstances,  from  what  we  observe 
of  meteoric  phenomena  at  the  present  time,  we  should  ex- 
pect that  by  the  fourth  day  the  exhalations  and  clouds 
would  entirely  disappear,  and  that  the  sun  would  shine 
forth  in  all  its  splendor.  To  the  eye  of  an  imaginary 
spectator,  therefore,  this  would  appear  as  a  new  creation, 
since  the  sun  had  never  before  shone  upon  the  renovated 
earth ;  and,  at  night,  the  moon  and  stars  would  appear  un- 
der the  same  aspect. 

This  supposition  accounts  satisfactorily,  we  think,  for 
the  division  of  light  from  darkness  on  the  first  day,  and  the 
succession  of  day  and  night,  by  the  diurnal  revolution  of 
the  earth  afterwards,  for  as,  at  the  present  time,  when  the 
face  of  the  sun  is  invisible,  there  is  still  a  division  of  light 
and  darkness,  or  day  and  night. 

Hence,  as  it  is  not  incompatible  with  the  terms  of  the 
history  to  believe  that  the  sun  and  moon  were  created  on 
the  first  day,  is  it  not  more  probable  that  this  was  the  case, 
and  that  "  the  light  was  divided  from  the  darkness,"  by 
the  first  revolution  of  the  earth,  than  it  is,  that  a  phospho- 
rescent light  was  created  expressly  for  the  use  of  an  unin- 
habited earth,  for  so  short  a  period,  and  during  which,  we 
cannot  account  for  the  succession  of  day  and  night  ? 

Signs,  Seasons,  Days,  and  Years.  Besides  "  dividing 
the  light  from  the  darkness,"  and  "ruling  the  day  and 
night,"  the  sun  and  moon  were  to  be  for  "  signs,  and  for 
seasons,  and  for  days,  and  for  years."  V.  14. 

The  vicissitudes  of  the  seasons  are  caused  bv  the  annu 


WITH    THE    MOSAIC    HISTORY.  323 

al  revolution  of  the  earth  around  the  sun,  together  with 
the  obliquity  of  the  earth's  axis.  It  is,  therefore,  the  real 
motion  of  the  earth,  instead  of  the  apparent  motion  of  the 
sun,  by  which  these  changes  are  produced.  The  language 
is,  however,  in  conformity  with  that  employed  in  other 
parts  of  this  history,  the  effect  being  attributed  to  the  mo- 
tion of  the  sun  instead  of  to  that  of  the  earth. 

In  addition  to  the  effects  which  these  changes  have 
upon  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  the  interests  of  the  hus- 
bandman, the  four  seasons  were  particularly  noticed  in 
ancient  times,  because  they  fixed  the  periods  of  the  sacred 
festivals. 

The  length  of  the  year*  is  the  time  occupied,  by  the 
earth,  in  making  one  complete  revolution  around  the 
sun,  during  which  the  sun  appears  to  make  365  diurnal 
revolutions  around  the  earth.  The  sun,  therefore,  in 
effect,  is  the  cause  of  the  seasons,  the  days,  and  the  years; 
for,  without  his  light  and  heat,  none  of  these  changes 
would  take  place ;  and,  to  this  day,  when  it  is  universally 
known  that  the  diurnal  and  annual  revolutions  of  the  sun 
are  only  apparent,  his  motions,  in  common  language,  are 
still  spoken  of  as  real,  and  time  is  every  where  measured 
by  his  motions  instead  of  those  of  the  earth.  Thus,  we 
say,  the  "  sun  rises  in  the  east,"  and  "  sinks  in  the  west," 
&c. 

That  the  historian  here  meant,  we  should  understand 
by  the  word  day,  the  time  included  between  two  set- 
tings of  the  sun,  or  a  period  which  we  call  twenty-four 
hours,  instead  of  an  indefinite  period,  as  some  have 
claimed,  for  the  days  of  creation, — that,  by  the  word 
seasons,  he  intended  the  common  seasons  of  the  year ;  and 
that  by  this  term,  was  signified,  from  spring  to  spring 
again,  or  a  term  of  365  days,  we  believe  no  one  will  deny, 
who  desires  to  give  the  Scriptures  a  fair  and  honest  inter- 
pretation. 

Creation  of  Creeping  and  Flying  Things.  On  the 
fifth  day,  "  God  said,  let  the  waters  bring  forth  abundant- 
ly the  moving  creature  that  hath  life,  and  fowl  that  may 
fly  above  the  earth,  in  the  open  firmament  of  heaven." 
V.  20. 

This  is  often  rendered  creeping,  instead  of  moving 
creature.  The  root,  in  Hebrew,  (sheretz,)  is  said  to  ba 


824  COINCIDENCE    OF   GEOLOGY 

derived  from  a  verb  which  signifies  to  bring  forth  or 
multiply  abundantly,  so  that  the  translation  ought  not  to 
be  the  creeping,  but  the  rapidly  multiplying  creatures.* 

The  meaning  is  obviously  intended  to  include  the  larger 
reptiles,  as  well  as  all  the  small  animals  inhabiting  the 
water,  as  insects,  worms,  and  shell  fish,  many  tribes  of 
which  are  known  to  be  exceedingly  prolific.  The  rapid- 
ity with  which  some  shell  fish,  as  the  oyster,  multiply, 
may  be  inferred  from  the  vast  numbers  which  are  con- 
sumed for  food ;  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  other 
species,  which  are  placed  without  the  ordinary  reach  of 
man,  or  which  he  does  not  use  for  food,  are  equally  pro- 
lific. The  great  thickness  and  extent  of  some  strata, 
composed  almost  entirely  of  shells,  are  a  sufficient  proof 
of  the  almost  infinite  fecundity  of  these  animals. 

The  word  rendered/cm?/,  (in  Hebrew  oph,)  and  by  which 
its  meaning  is  limited  to  the  birds  of  the  air,  is  said  more 
properly  to  signify  flying  thing,\  and  that  the  original 
will  admit  of  such  a  meaning  as  to  include  flying  insects, 
appears  from  Levit.  xi.  20.  All  fowls  that  creep,  going 
upon  all  four.  We  may  therefore  understand  that  flying 
insects,  as  well  as  shell-fish,  reptiles,  and  birds,  were  cre- 
ated on  the  fifth  day. 

• 

Creation  of  Mammalia  and  Man.  On  the  sixth  and 
last  day  of  the  creation,  the  "beasts  of  the  earth,"  "  cattle 
after  their  kind,"  and  lastly  man,  were  brought  into  exist- 
ence. 

The  "  beast  and  cattle"  are  supposed  to  include  the 
whole  division  of  what  are  now  called  Mammalia,  or  milk- 
giving  quadrupeds,  the  amphibious  quadrupeds  having 
been  created  on  the  fifth  day. 

Coincidences  between  Genesis  and  Geological  facts. 
Having  thus  taken  such  notices  of  the  history  of  the  crea- 
tion as  our  object  requires,  we  will  next  proceed  to  show 
the  coincidences  between  the  successive  creations,  and 
the  results  which  geology  has  been  the  means  of  unfolding. 

It  was  long  since  remarked  by  geologists,  that  impres- 
sions of  ferns,  and  other  cryptogamous  plants,  were  found 


•  Professor  Jameson's  Ed.  New  Phil.  Jour.  1832.          t  Ibid. 


WITH  THE  MOSAIC  HISTORY. 


325 


in  the  deepest  secondary  strata,  or  in  the  first  deposited 
earth  which  contained  any  signs  of  organic  life;  while  on 
the  other  hand,  it  was  well  known  that  the  bones  of  mam- 
miferous  animals  existed  only  near  the  surface.  Succes- 
sive discoveries  have  completed  the  series,  and  have  shown 
that  there  exists  an  exact  correspondence  between  the  order 
of  creations,  as  stated  by  Moses,  and  of  the  fossil  remains 
of  vegetables  and  animals  discovered  by  geology 

The  basis  of  the  following  table  is  contained  in  Profes- 
sor Jameson's  new  Philosophical  Journal,  published  at 
Edinburgh,  in  1832.  In  the  references  to  Genesis,  the 
events  on  which  geology  can  throw  no  light,  are  in 
italics. 

In  the  original  table  there  is  no  reference  to  the  dis- 
tinctions which  Moses  has  made  with  respect  to  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  or  classes  of  plants,  and  which  we  have 
shown  to  form  the  most  striking  coincidence  between 
scripture  and  science.  This  coincidence,  so  far  as  we 
know,  has  never  before  been  shown  to  exist  in  detail, 
and  this  discovery,  if  we  may  so  call  it,  has  not  only  been 
added  to  the  table,  but  the  whole  has  been  enlarged  about 
one  half,  by  additional  quotations  from  different  authorities. 


TABLE 


Or   COINCIDENCES   BETWEEN   THE   ORDEH   OP    EVENTS,    AS   DESCRIBED    19 
GENESIS,  AND  THOSE  UNFOLDED  BY  GEOLOGICAL  INVESTIGATIONS. 


IN  GENESIS. 


Gen.  i.  1,  2.  In  the 
beginning  God  crea- 
ted the  heavens  and 
the  earth.  And  the 
earth  was  without 
form  and  void  ;  and 
darkness  was  upon 
the  face  of  the  deep  ; 
and  the  spirit  of  God 
moved  upon  the  face 
of  the  waters. 

V.  3i,  4,  5.  Creation 
of  light.  6,7,8.  Crea- 
tion of  the  expansion 


DISCOVERED  BY  GEOLOGY. 


It  is  impossible  to  deny  that  the  waters 
of  the  sea  have  formerly,  and  for  a  long 
time,  covered  those  masses  of  matter  whicK 
now  constitute  the  highest  mountains ;  and 
further,  that  these  waters,  for  a  long  time, 
did  not  support  any  living  bodies. —  Cu- 
vier's  Theory  of  the  Earth. 

Again,  "  Thus  it  is  rational  to  believe, 
that  shells  and  fishes  did  not  exist  at  the 
period  of  the  formation  of  the  primordial 
layers." — Cuvier's  Rf.v.  of  the  Globe,  p.  68. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  stop  to  prove,  that 
our  continents  have  once  formed  the  bed 
of  the  sea ;  there  is  no  longer  any  division 


326 


TABLE  OF  COINCIDENCES  CONTINUED. 


IN  GENESIS. 


or  atmosphere.  9, 10. 
The  sea  formed  by 
the  gathering  of  the 
waters  into  one  place, 
and  the  appearance 
of  dry  land. 


12.  Creation  of  ten- 
der, or  budding  grass. 

12.  Herb  yielding 
seed. 


Wheat  and  barley 
are  monocotyledo- 
nous  plants. 

12.  And  the  frui 
tree  yielding  fruit  af- 
ter his  kind,  whose 
seed  is  in  itself. 
Pears,apples,  peach 
es,  chestnuts,  are  di 
cotyledonous  plants. 


14  to  19.  Sun,moon 
and  stars,  set  in  the 
firmament,  to  divide 
the  day  from  the  night, 
and  to  be  for  signs, 
and  for  seasons,  ana 
for  days,  and  for 
years. 


20.  Let  the  water; 
bring  forth  abundant- 
ly  the  moving  crea- 
tures that  hath  life. 


Creation  of  flying 
things. 


of  opinion  among  naturalists  upon  this 
point.— LJe  Laic,  Lett.  Geol.  p.  301. 


DISCOVERED  BY  GEOLOGY. 


Cryptogamous  plants  in  coal  strata. — 
Many  authors. 

In  the  formation  of  coal  and  anthracite, 
ihe  vegetables  are  almost  all  cryptogamia, 
as  ferns,  equisetums,  &c.,  and.  plants  of 
the  monocotyledonous  tribes,  some  of 
which  were  of  arborescent  species,  now 
no  longer  exiting. — Adolphe  Brogniart. 

There  may  be  a  connexion  between  an 
extraordinary  profusion  of  monocotyledo- 
nous plants, 'and  a  youthful  condiiion  of 
he  world. — Lyett,  vol.  i.  p.  147. 

Brown  coat  is  formed  of  large  trees, 
whose  texture  is  still  to  be  discerned,  and 
from  scattered  leaves,  they  undoubtedly 
belonged  to  dicotyledonous  families. — 
Count  Sternberg. 

(Brown  coal  is  considered  a  more  recent 
formation  than  common  coal,  or  anthra- 
cite.) 


Shells  in  the  Paris  basin. —  Cuvier. 

Shells  in  Alpine  and  Jura  limestone. — 
Humboldt. 

Fish  in  Jura  limestone. — ib. 

Shells  and  vegetable  remains  are  found 
in  the  next  order  below  those  of  fish  and 
oviparous  reptiles. — Sir  II.  Davy. 

Teeth  and  scales  of  fish  in  Tilgate  sand- 
stone.— Mr.  Mantdl. 


The  remains  of  birds  with  those  of  fish 
and  oviparous  reptiles. — Sir  If.  Davy. 

Bones  of  birds  in  Tilgate  sandstone. — 
Mr.  Manttll. 

Elytra  of  winged  insects  in  calcareous 
slate  at  Stonesfield. — ib. 


TABLE  OF  COINCIDENCES  CONTINUED, 


327 


IN  GRNESIS. 


21.  Creation  of  rep- 
tiles, livery  living 
thing  that  tnoveih, 
which  ihe  waters 
brought  forth  abun- 
dantly. 


24,  25.  Creation  of 
mammalia;  the  beast] 
of  the  earth  after  his 
kind,  and  cattle  after 
their  kind. 


26,  27.  Creation  of 
he  human  race. 


Bones  of  crocodiles  at  Manhenn. —  Von 
Dusk. 

Bones  of  saurian  animals  at  Stonesfield. 
Mr.  Mantell. 

Remains  of  sea  turtles  and  lizard  like 
animals,  at  St.  Pierre. — Dr.  Ure. 

It  will  be  impossible  not  to  acknowledge, 
as  a  ceriain  truth,  the  number,  the  large- 
ness, and  the  variety  of  the  reptiles  which 
inhabited  the  seas,  and  the  land,  at  the 
epoch  at  which  the  strata  of  the  Jura  were 
deposited. — Cuvier. 

There  was  a  period  when  the  earth  was 
peopled  by  oviparous  quadrupeds,  of  the 
most  appalling  magnitude.  Reptiles  were 
he  lords  of  the  creation. — Mantell. 

Animals  analogous  to  the  frog,  toad,  and 
salamander,  existed  when  the  strata  were 
disordered  by  the  revolutions  of  the  globe. 
— Dr.  Ure. 


BY  GEOLOGY. 


Bones  of  mammiferous  quadrupeds  are 
found  only  when  we  come  to  the  forma- 
tions above  the  coarse  limestone,  which  is 
above  the  chalk. — Cuvier. 

The  remains  of  quadrupeds  of  extinct 
species,  occur  next  above  those  of  birds 
and  oviparous  reptiles. — Sir  H.  Davy. 

It  is  only  in  the  loose  and  slightly  con- 
solidated strata  of  gravel  and  sand,  and 
which  are  usually  called  diluvial  forma- 
tions, that  the  remains  of  animals,  such  as 
now  people  the  globe,  are  found. — Sir  H. 
Davy,  Consolations  of  Travel. 


It  is  a  fact,  that  as  yet  no  human  bones 
have  been  discovered  among  fossil  re- 
mains.— Cuvier' s  Rev.  of  the  Globe,  p.  81. 

But  found  covered  with  mud,  in  the 
caves  of  Bize.— Journal. 

The  great  question  concerning  human 
remains  in  a  fossil  state,  stands  now  be- 
fore the  world  in  an  entirely  different 
aspect  from  what  it  did  when  Cuvier  pub- 
lished his  work. — GranxiLle  Penn. 

Human  bones,  supposed  to  be  fossil, 
have  been  found  in  the  caves  of  Durfort 
and  Kosritz. — Outlines  of  Geology. 

In  some  few  instances  human  bones  oc- 
cur, but  the  era  to  which  their  possessors 
ought  to  be  referred,  has  not  been  satisfac- 
torily ascertained.  Though  some  are  more 
modern,  others  seem  to  claim  an  antedilu- 
vian antiquity. — Sharon  Turner. 


TABLE  OF  COINCIDENCES  CONTINUED. 


IN  GENESIS. 


Genesis,  chapter  vii. 
The  Deluge  of  Noah. 
"  And  the  waters  pre- 
vailed exceedingly 
upon  the  earth;  and 
all  the  high  hills  that 
were  under  the  whole 
heaven  were  cover- 
ed." V.  19. 

The  deluge  hap- 
pened A.  M.  1G56. 
being  2348  years  be- 
fore the  Christian 
era,  and  4184  before 
1836. 


DISCOVERED  BY  GEOLOGY. 


In  the  delta  of  the  Ganges  human  bones 
have  been  found  ninety  feet  deep. —  Von 
Hoff. 


If  there  be  any  thing  determined  in  ge- 
ology, it  is,  that  the  surface  of  our  globe  has 
been  subjected  to  a  vast  and  sudden  revolu- 
tion, not  longer  ago  than  five  or  six  thou- 
sand years. —  Cuvier's  Rev.  Globe,  p.  180. 

A  universal  deluge  seems  clearly  proved 
by  the  utter  extinction  of  the  primeval  race 
of  animals. — Dr.  Ure. 

The  Alps  and  Carpathians,  as  well  as 
every  other  mountainous  region  which  I 
have  visited,  bear  the  same  evidence  of 
having  been  modified  by  the  force  of  wa- 
ter, as  do  the  hills  of  the  lower  regions. — 
Dr.  Buckland. 

Geology  fully  confirms  the  scriptural 
history  of  the  deluge. — Prof.  Silliman. 


The  numbers  4,  5,  and  6t  we  will  not  conceal,  are  liable 
to  be  interchanged  among  themselves,  in  respect  to  place, 
and  we  shall  derive  no  argument  from  them,  farther  than 
what  arises  from  the  circumstance,  that  they  are  all 
placed  in  one  group.  Still  the  number  of  coincidences 
here  shown  between  the  order  of  the  epochs  of  creation 
assigned  in  Genesis,  and  that  discovered  by  geology,  are 
calculated  not  only  to  excite  the  attention  of  scientific 
men,  but  also  that  of  theologians,  as  forming  an  additional 
argument  to  the  truth  of  inspiration. 

Human  science,  in  the  probability  of  chances,  as  illus- 
trated by  La  Place,  has  put  us  in  possession  of  an  instru- 
ment for  estimating  the  value  of  these  coincidences ;  and 
we*  feel  amply  entitled  to  take  advantage  of  it  for  that 
purpose,  for  no  case  could  well  be  pointed  out,  where  it 
would  be  more  correctly  applicable  than  in  this,  where 
the  coincidences  assume  a  definitely  successive  numerical 
form.  We  are  entitled  to  adopt  even  the  language  of  La 
Place,  and  to  say,  "  by  subjecting  the  probability  of  these 
coincidences  to  computation,  it  is  found  that  there  is  more 
than  sixty  thousand  to  one  against  the  hypothesis,  that  they 
are  the  effects  of  chance."f 

"  It  is  thus,  then,  that  the  discoveries  of  geology,  when 
more  matured,  instead  of  throwing  suspicion  on  the  truths 


Jameson's  Journal. 


t  System  du  Mcnde,  Book  V. 


DAYS  OF  CREATION.  329 

of  revelation,  as  the  first  steps  in  them  led  some  to  main- 
tain, have  furnished  the  most  overpowering  evidence  in 
behalf  of  one  branch  of  these  truths.* 


DAYS  OF  CREATION. 


At  the  commencement  of  this  article,  we  noticed  that  hy- 
pothetical geologists  required  more  time  than  was  allowed 
by  Moses,  to  account  for  various  phenomena  which  the 
earth  presents ;  and  that  so  early  as  the  time  of  Whiston, 
it  was  proposed  so  to  interpret  Genesis,  as  to  leave  geolo- 
gists full  scope  for  their  speculations. 

From  that  time  to  the  present,  there  have  not  been  want- 
ing authors,  who  either  through  motives  of  self-convenience, 
or  a  desire  to  reconcile  science  with  revelation,  have  ven- 
tured to  call  the  days  of  creation,  periods  of  great  or  inde- 
finite length. 

To  believers  in  revelation,  this  cannot  be  an  unimpor- 
tant subject.  If  the  very  commencement  of  the  book  of 
inspiration  can  be  interpreted  in  a  sense  so  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  its  plain  and  obvious  meaning,  what  portion 
of  scripture  conveys  truth  to  the  understanding?  And  if 
the  translation  does  not  convey  the  intended  meaning  of  the 
author  in  this  case,  where  are  common  readers  to  look  for 
such  meaning? 

We  propose,  therefore,  to  examine  the  question,  whether 
the  terms  in  which  the  Mosaic  history  of  the  creation  is 
written,  will,  by  any  fair  interpretation,  allow  the  belief 
that  the  periods  therein  called  days  were  intended  to  mean 
indefinite  time,  or  whether  they  were  periods  of  more  than 
twenty-four  hours. 

If  the  Scriptures  are  true,  they  must  be  so  in  their  most 
plain  and  obvious  sense,  and  if  any  scientific  fact  contra- 
dicts this  sense,  then,  to  a  common  understanding,  they  do 
not  convey  the  truth. 

If  an  author  uses  the  same  terms  in  different  places, 
and  apparently  in  the  same  sense,  we  are  bound  to  believe 
that  he  means  the  same  in  every  case.  If  he  intends  to 
convey  different  ideas  by  the  same  terms,  standing  in 
similar  connexions,  and  this  without  warning  his  readers, 


*  Jameson's  Journal. 
28* 


330  DAYS  OF  CREATION. 

he  cannot  be  a  correct  writer,  because  he  is  not  only  incon- 
sistent with  himself,  but  cannot  be  understood,  and  there- 
fore he  is  not  to  be  credited. 

It  is  believed  that  no  one  will  deny,  that  whatever  may 
be  said  of  the  prophecies,  the  narratives  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment were  intended,  by  their  authors,  to  be  understood  by 
ordinary  capacities,  nor  will  it  be  claimed  that  the  author 
of  Genesis  has  been  so  inconsistent  with  himself,  as  on  that 
account  to  raise  a  suspicion  of  his  veracity. 

This  author  has  not  only  given  us  the  history  of  the  cre- 
ation of  all  things,  but  also  of  the  destruction  of  the  ancient 
world  by  a  flood  of  water. 

Whoever  reads  the  account  of  the  latter,  will  there  find, 
that  "the  flood  was  forty  days  upon  the  earth,"  or  that  it 
rained  forty  days ;  and  that  "  the  waters  prevailed  upon 
the  earth  an  hundred  and  fifty  days."  And,  whoever 
reads  the  account  of  the  creation,  will  there  find  that  the 
whole  work  was  performed  in  six  days,  each  day's  work 
being  described  by  itself,  and  the  day  carefully  number- 
ed, that  in  so  important  a  work,  there  should  be  no 
doubt  either  with  respect  to  the  succession  of  the  seve- 
ral creations,  or  to  the  time  occupied  in  finishing  the 
whole. 

Now  these  narrations  being  from  the  same  pen, — being 
also  continuations  of  the  same  general  history;  and  the 
word  day  being  employed  in  the  same  unqualified  manner 
in  both  cases,  no  reader  can  doubt,  if  the  translation  con- 
veys the  meaning  of  the  historian,  that  he  intended  they 
should  be  understood  to  signify  the  same  periods  of  time  in 
both  narratives. 

From  the  statements  of  Moses,  therefore,  we  are  as  fully 
entitled  to  the  belief,  that  the  waters  of  the  deluge  prevailed 
upon  the  earth  for  an  indefinite  period,  or  that  a  day  of  the 
deluge  was  a  thousand  years,  and  thus  that  its  waters  co- 
vered the  earth  for  the  term  of  150,000  years,  as  we  are  to 
believe  that  a  day  of  creation  was  an  indefinite  period,  or 
a  term  of  a  thousand  years,  and  thus  that  6000  years  were 
occupied  in  the  work  of  creation 

If  the  terms  of  the  history  allow  any  difference  with 
respect  to  the  length  of  the  days,  this  would  certainly  be 
in  favor  of  those  of  the  deluge,  since  the  plural  is  there 
employed,  while  the  singular  only  is  used  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  creation,  and  each  day  is  expressly  confined 
within  the  "  evening  and  morning."  But  no  one,  we 


DAYS    OF    CREATION.  331 

believe,  has  proposed  to  consider  the  days  of  the  deluge  of 
greater  length  than  twenty-four  hours,  though  from  the 
words  of  the  record,  we  cannot  perceive  why  they  should 
not,  equally  with  those  of  the  creation,  claim  to  be  periods 
of  a  thousand  years. 

But  it  is  needless  to  extend  these  considerations.  If 
the  words  of  Moses  were  intended  to  mean  that  a  day  of 
creation  was  a  period  of  a  thousand  years,  or  any  other 
period,  more  than  a  natural  day,  why  have  not  the  trans- 
lators so  rendered  it  ?  No  man  in  his  senses  will  pre- 
tend that  Christianity  required  one  translation  and  geol- 
ogy another ;  or  that  the  Hebrew  is  better  understood  at 
the  present  day,  than  at  the  time  when  the  Bible  was 
translated. 

Finally,  with  a  few  exceptions,  it  is  the  universal  be- 
lief of  the  Christian  world,  and  ever  has  been,  that  the 
work  of  creation  occupied  only  six  natural  days,  and  this 
alone  is  a  sufficient  proof  that  the  common  'translations 
convey  no  other  meaning.  The  exceptions,  therefore, 
could  not  have  been  derived  from  the  translations,  and  we 
shall  show  directly,  that  they  could  not  have  been  derived 
from  any  fair  construction  of  the  original. 

Does  the  word  DAY,  in  Gen.  i.  admit  of  any  of  her  inter- 
p?  station  than  the  common  onel  We  think  it  has  been 
shown  above,  that  if  the  history  of  the  creation  has  been 
fai/ly  translated,  it  is  impossible  its  author  should  have 
inxended  to  convey  by  the  word  day,  any  other  meaning 
in  that  history,  than  a  period  of  twenty-four  hours ;  and 
that  this  is  proved  by  the  universal  understanding  of  the 
Christian  church,  and  of  the  Christian  world.  But  since 
some  declare  that  this  universal  understanding  is  owing 
to  a  misinterpretation,  or  at  least,  that  the  terms  of  the 
original  will  admit  of  a  construction  different  from  the 
common  one,  we  will  here  inquire  of  commentators,  how 
far  this  is  true. 

Mr.  Faber's  Theory  making  the  Mosaic  days  6000 
Years.  The  most  conspicuous  theologian  who  interprets 
Moses,  so  as  to  extend  the  days  of  creation  to  periods  of 
great  length,  is  Mr.  Faber,  an  English  writer,  well  known 
as  the  author  of  the  "  Three  Dispensations,"  and  other 
works,  some  of  which  are  in  common  use,  and  in  high 
estimation,  in  this  country. 


332  DAYS    OF    CREATION. 

Mr.  Faber  says,  "  that  the  six  demiurgic  days,  instead 
of  being  nothing  more  than  six  natural  days,  were  each  a 
period  of  very  considerable  length,  may  be  proved  partly 
by  analogy  of  language,  partly  by  the  very  necessity  of  the 
narrative,  partly  by  ancient  tradition,  and  partly  (and  that 
most  decisively)  by  the  discoveries,  or  possibly  the  re- 
discoveries, of  modern  physiologists." 

With  respect  to  the  analogy  of  language,  Mr.  Faber 
says,  that  in  Scripture,  nothing  can  well  be  more  indefi- 
nite than  the  term  which  we  translate  by  the  English 
word  day.  Sometimes  it  signifies  a  single  revolution  of 
the  earth  round  its  axis ;  sometimes  it  denotes  a  revolu- 
tion of  the  earth  round  the  sun,  or  what  we  call  a  natural 
year,  &c. 

"  The  question  therefore  is,"  says  he,  "  what  specific 
period  it  describes  in  the  Mosaical  history  of  the  crea- 
tion." If  God  labored  six  natural  days,  and  rested  on  the 
seventh  natural  day,  the  very  terms  of  the  statement  will 
imply  that  he  resumed  his  labors  on  the  eighth  natural 
day,  or  on  the  first  day  of  the  following  natural  week. 
But  did  he  resume  his  labors  on  the  eighth  natural  morn- 
ing ?  "  Most  assuredly  he  did  not,  and  if  he  did  not  re- 
sume his  labors  on  the  eighth  natural  morning,  then  his 
Sabbath,  or  day  of  rest,  extended  beyond  the  seventh 
natural  day,  therefore  a  single  natural  day  could  not  be 
the  measure  of  the  divine  Sabbath." 

"  But  at  what  time  did  the  divine  Sabbath,  thus  plainly- 
extending  beyond  the  limits  of  the  seventh  day,  termi- 
nate ?"  asks  our  author,  and  to  himself  replies,  "  In  good 
truth,  its  termination  has  not  even  yet  arrived ;  for  the 
creative  labors  of  God  have  never  been  resumed."  To 
show  the  truth  of  this,  Mr.  Faber  quotes  from  the  heathen 
"  Institutes  of  Menu,"  as  follows :  "  He,  whose  powers  are 
incomprehensible,  having  created  the  universe,  was  again 
absorbed  in  the  Supreme  Being,  changing  the  time  of  en- 
ergy for  the  time  of  repose ;"  and  then  says,  "The  time 
of  God's  energy  was  doubtless  the  period  of  the  creation." 
We  are  sorry  that  Mr.  Faber  is  obliged  to  quote  Indian 
heathenism  instead  of  Scripture  to  support  his  doctrines. 
But  leaving  this  to  the  reader's  own  comments,  we  will  pass 
at  once  to  the  author's  conclusions  on  this  part  of  the  subject. 

From  the  above  data,  he  says  the  divine  Sabbath  has 
not  yet  terminated,  nor  will  it  terminate,  until  "  the  pre- 
dicted dissolution  of  the  present  order  of  things." 


DAYS    OF    CREATION.  333 

"  Thus  it  appears,"  says  he,  "  that  the  divine  Sabbath, 
instead  of  being  limited  to  a  single  natural  day,  is  in  truth 
a  period  commensurate  with  the  duration  of  the  created 
universe ;  what  that  duration  will  be,  no  one  knows  save 
the  Father  only."  2  Peter  iii.  10,  13.  But  this  we  know, 
that  the  world  has  existed  about  6000  years.  "  The  divine 
Sabbath,  therefore,  is  a  period  of  not  less  duration  than  six 
millenaries."* 

Having  come  to  this  odd  conclusion,  Mr.  Faber  goes 
on  to  show  that  the  analogy  of  language  requires  us  to 
"  interpret  homogeneously  the  seven  days,  which  consti- 
tute the  great  week  of  God."  Hence,  as  the  Sabbath  day 
was  a  period  of  not  less  than  6000  years,  so  each  of  the 
other  days  must  have  been  periods  of  at  least  6000  years. 

Thus,  does  the  learned  Mr.  Faber  call  upon  his  fellow 
Christians,  whether  geologists  or  not,  to  believe  that  He 
who  said,  "  Let  there  be  light,  and  light  was,"  "  who 
brought  all  things  out  of  nothing  by  the  word  of  His 
power,"  occupied"  at  least  36,000  years  in  creating  this 
little  earth,  a  mere  speck,  a  mote,  when  compared  with 
his  other  works,  the  "hosts  of  heaven,"  the  universe. 

Let  us  look  for  a  moment  at  the  bearing  of  this  theory. 
Since  "the  ways  of  God  are  equal,"  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe,  that  if  time  was  required  in  the  creation  of  this 
earth  and  the  garniture  thereof,  a  proportionate  quantity 
of  time  was  also  required  in  the  creation  of  the  other 
planets  of  our  system,  for  there  is  not  the  least  probabili- 
ty, that  if  the  creative  power  required  at  least  36,000 
years  to  form  our  earth,  that  the  same  power  could  at  the 
same  time  have  been  at  work  in  the  production  of  the 
other  planets.  Mr.  Faber's  theory  does  not  allow  such  a 
supposition  ;  for  no  reason  can  be  assigned,  why  the  pro- 
cess of  creation  occupied  so  long  a  period,  except  the 
want  of  power  to  finish  it  in  a  shorter  time ;  and  there- 
fore since  the  entire  power  of  the  Creator  must  have  been 
occupied  on  our  earth,  it  is  plain  that  no  other  work  could 
have  been  accomplished  at  the  same  time. 

Now  since  there  are  twenty-eight  planets  in  our  sys- 
tem besides  the  Earth,  if  we  consider  the  latter  of  a  medi- 
um size,  then  the  time  occupied  in  creating  the  whole 
would  be  twenty-nine  times  36,000  years,  without  refer- 


Three  Dispensations,  vol.  i.  115,  116. 


334  DATS    OF    CREATION. 

ence  to  the  creation  of  the  sun.  But  the  sun  contains  500 
times  as  much  matter  as  all  the  planets  put  together,  and 
therefore,  according  to  Mr.  Faber's  doctrine,  we  cannot  see 
why  it  must  not  have  occupied  500  times  as  long  a  period 
for  its  creation  as  all  the  planets. 

According  to  this  doctrine,  then,  it  must  have  taken 
nearly  five  hundred  millions  of  years  for  Him  who  said, 
"  Let  the  dry  land  appear,"  and  it  was  so,  to  have  created 
and  made  this  our  solar  system.  What  time  then  must 
have  been  occupied  by  the  same  creative  power  in  the 
formation  of  those  myriads  of  worlds  which  the  vault  of 
the  heavens  contain,  for  "  He  made  the  stars  also."  But 
enough  of  this.  And  now  if  Mr.  Faber's  theory  does  not 
fairly  lead  to  such  conclusions,  then  the  folly  of  drawing 
them  must  fall  on  the  writer  of  this  book,  and  not  on  himself 

But  whether  our  present  conclusions  are  true  or  false, 
we  will  call  upon  any  man,  even  on  our  author  himself,  to 
reconcile  another  bearing  of  his  theory  with  itself,  or  in 
other  words  to  show  how  it  is  possible  that  a  definite  por- 
tion of  time  should  be  perpetually  increasing  in  length. 
Thus,  Mr.  Faber  says,  that  the  length  of  the  Sabbath  is 
the  length  of  all  the  other  days,  and  that  God  having 
rested  from  his  labors  6000  years  at  the  present  time, 
therefore  each  day  of  creation  is  now,  or  was,  6000  years 
long.  But  he  goes  on  to  inform  us  that  the  said  Sabbath 
has  not  yet  terminated,  nor  will  it  terminate  until  the  pre- 
dicted dissolution  of  the  present  order  of  things;  or  in  the 
language  of  Menu,  "the  time  of  repose  has  not  yet  changed 
for  the  time  of  energy." 

Now  since  the  length  of  the  Sabbath,  and  all  the  other 
days,  depend  entirely  on  the  length  of  time  which  God  has 
rested,  or  will  rest,  from  his  labors,  then  it  plainly  follows, 
that  had  Mr.  Faber  written  his  theory  at  the  expiration  of 
twenty-fours  hours  after  the  last  creation,  the  length  of  the 
days,  according  to  himself,  would  have  been  only  twenty- 
four  hours  long,  for  the  same  reason  that  he  makes  them 
6000  years  long  at  the  time  he  did  write.  And  so  he  who 
lives  6000  years  hence,  and  reads  Mr.  Faber's  theory,  will 
find  that  according  to  it,  the  days  of  creation  were  12,000 
years  long,  and  so  on,  until  "the  time  of  repose  is  changed 
for  the  time  of  energy." 

Does  any  ancient  tradition,  or  any  discovery  of  modern 
physiologists,  warrant  a  grave  and  learned  author  to  em- 
ploy such  logic  as  this? 


DATS    OF    CREATION.  335 

Again,  if  the  days  of  creation  were  6000  years  long1, 
then  \ve  must  believe  that  it  was  18,000  years  after  the 
waters  were  gathered,  and  the  dry  land  made  to  appear, 
before  man  was  created — that  it  was  12,000  years  after 
the  creation  of  plants  before  animals  were  brought  into 
existence,  and  that  it.  was  12,000  years  after  the  sea  was 
formed  before  it  brought  forth  the  "  moving  creature." 

But  Mr.  Faber  finds,  from  the.  very  necessity  of  the 
narrative,  that  a  considerable  portion  of  time  must  have 
elapsed  between  the  creation  of  plants,  and  the  creation 
of  animals,  otherwise  the  herbivorous  tribes  must  have 
perishfd  for  want  of  food. 

In  this  part  of  his  theory,  it  must  be  confessed  that  the 
author  has  shown  a  marvellous  degree  of  sagacity,  having 
discovered  this  necessity  in.  a  passage  where  less  acumen, 
or  less  anxiety  to  support  a  theory,  would  certainly  have 
looked  for  it  in  vain. 

The  words  of  the  narrative  which  afford  this  necessity, 
are  found  in  Gen.  xi.  5.  "  God  made  every  plant  of  the 
field  before  it  was  in  the  earth  ;  and  every  herb  of  the 
field  before  it  grew."  The  remaining  part  of  the  same 
verse  explains  this,  "for  the  Lord  God  had  not  caused  it 
to  rain  upon  the  earth,  and  there  was  not  a  man  to  till  the 
ground."  This  plainly  showing,  that  although  the  pro- 
cess of  vegetation  usually  requires  rain  and  tillage,  yet 
in  this  case  it  was  perfected  without  either.* 

It  was  plainly,  from  the  words  of  the  text,  a  miraculous 
creation  of  full  grown  vegetables,  without  the  planting  of 
seeds,  and  without  the  process  of  vegetation. 

It  appears  from  this  verse,  says  Dr.  Adam  Clarke,  that 
God  created  every  thing,  not  only  perfect  as  respects  its 
nature,  but  also  in  a  state  of  maturity ;  so  that  every  ve- 
getable production  appeared  at  once  in  full  growth,  and 
this  was  necessary,  that  man,  when  he  came  into  being, 
might  find  every  thing  ready  for  his  use. 

Now  although  nothing  can  be  more  obvious  than  that 
the  sacred  historian  intended  we  should  understand  by 
this  language,  that  the  first  plants  did  not  pass  through 
the  gradual  process  of  growth  as  they  afterwards  did,  but 
that  they  were  called  into  existence  in  full  maturity,  yet 
from  these  very  words,  Mr.  Faber  infers  that  we  are  un- 


*  Bush  on  Genesis. 


336  DAYS    OF    CREATION. 

der  the  necessity  of  concluding  that  the  whole  vegetable 
kingdom  was  created  in  the  form  of  seeds ;  and  because 
in  the  ordinary  course  of  nature,  these  seeds  could  not 
have  grown  in  time  to  have  supplied  herbivorous  animals 
with  food,  which  were  created  two  days  after ;  so  these 
days  must  have  been  at  least  GOOD  years  in  length,  for 
otherwise  the  cattle  of  the  field  would  have  perished  for 
want  of  food. 

Now,  independently  of  what  we  must  consider  a  total 
perversion  of  the  meaning  of  the  text,  this  interpretation 
is  utterly  inconsistent  with  what  follows,  for  it  is  clear, 
if  we  are  guided  by  analogy,  (which  is  one  of  the  corner 
stones  of  Mr.  Faber's  theory,)  we  must  allow  that  the 
animals  were  created  in  the  young  state,  as  well  as  the 
plants,  and  granting  this  to  have  been  the  case,  then  it  is 
plain  that  the  seeds  would  have  vegetated  into  herbs,  at 
least  as  soon  as  the  young  animals  could  have  been  fitted 
to  partake  of  such  food. 

But  that  the  animals  were  created  in  full  maturity,  as 
well  as  our  first  parents,  no  one  can  have  the  least  doubt, 
otherwise  who  nursed  and  brought  them  up,  since  they 
had  neither  fathers  nor  mothers. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  follow  Mr.  Faber  in  further  details. 
The  propriety  of  his  interpretation  he  has  attempted  to 
prove,  as  already  stated, 

1.  By  analogy  of  language. 

2.  By  the  very  necessity  of  the  narrative. 

3.  By  ancient  tradition,  and 

4.  By  the  discoveries  of  modern  physiologists. 

With  respect  to  the  last  ground  of  proof,  he  quotes 
Cuvier  on  the  revolutions  of  the  globe,  to  show  that  the 
earth  has  undergone  great  changes  since  its  first  creation, 
and  which  no  one  denies.  But  on  this  point  he  advances 
nothing  new,  or  which  in  the  least  degree  shows  the  ne- 
cessity of  his  new  interpretation.  It  is  therefore  needless 
to  follow  him  through  this  portion  of  his  argument. 

And  now,  in  taking  leave  of  Mr.  Faber,  we  must  be 
allowed  to  express  the  astonishment  we  have  felt,  that  a 
Christian  writer  of  his  reputation  should  have  so  far  lent 
himself  to  the  support  of  a  theory,  as  to  have  seen  in  an- 
cient traditions,  or  the  discovery  of  modern  physiologists, 
a  sufficient  reason  for  giving  the  sacred  Scriptures  a  mean- 
ing, which  otherwise  he  does  not  pretend  they  could  have 
had.  What !  a  man  professing  to  teach  the  sacred  truths  of 


DAYS  OF  CREATION.  337 

the  Bible,  and  yet  warping  its  plain  and  obvious  meaning, 
for  the  express  purpose  of  making  it  agree  with  heathen 
philosophy,  or  his  views  of  modern  naturalists!  we  hope 
that  no  successor  of  Mr.  Faber's  will  ever  venture  on  such 
hazardous  ground. 

Is  it  not  enough  that  infidels  profess  to  be  wise  above 
what  is  written ;  and  do  not  Christians  put  weapons  into 
the  hands  of  unbelievers,  when  they  turn  the  plain  and  ob- 
vious meaning  of  the  sacred  text  aside,  even  for  the  sake 
of  argument? 

The  discoveries  of  modern  geologists,  so  far  from  call- 
ing for  new  interpretations  of  the  Bible,  are  constantly 
confirming  its  truths  as  commonly  understood. 

Let  us  then  adhere  to  Moses,  until  we  find  some  fact 
which  clearly  proves  a  discrepancy  between  revelation  and 
nature. 

Prof.  Sillimaris  Theory.  We  are  aware  that  several 
American  geologists,  who  deservedly  stand  high  in  public 
estimation,  and  who  also  revere  the  Sacred  Scriptures, 
still  see  in  the  mechanism  of  the  earth  a  necessity  of  ex- 
tending the  days  of  Genesis  to  longer  periods  than  twenty- 
four  hours.  Among  these  are  Professor  Silliman  of  New 
Haven,  who  has  given  the  world  his  views  on  this  sub- 
ject. 

His  communication  contains,  at  considerable  length,  a 
detail  of  the  geological  facts,  which  he  considers  incom- 
patible with  the  common  reading  of  Moses.  Also,  co- 
pious extracts  from  "  Mantel's  Geology  of  the  Southeast 
of  England,"  and  from  "  Prof.  Jameson's  Edinburgh 
Journal." 

The  latter  is  understood  to  be  the  production  of  Prof. 
Jameson  himself,  and  is  a  critical  examination  of  the  He- 
brew text,  with  respect  »o  the  word  which  we  translate 
day,  and  in  which,  with  Mr.  Faber,  he  comes  to  the  con- 
clusion that  it  may  signify  a  long  period  of  time,  though 
he  does  not  pretend  to  fix  its  length. 

On  this  subject  of  Hebrew  criticism  we  have  nothing  to 
offer;  but  he  who  can  read  the  English  translations  of  the 
Bible,  cannot  but  have  observed,  that  the  word  day  is 
there  often  made  to  signify  long  periods.  "  They  that 
shall  come  after  him  shall  be  astonished  at  his  day"  Job 
xviii.  20.  In  this  case,  it  undoubtedly  means  the  period 
of  a  man's  life ;  and  the  same  use  is  made  of  it  in  common 
29 


338  DAYS  OF  CREATION. 

language  everywhere.  How  often  do  we  hear  persons, 
both  old  arid  young,  say,  in  "  my  day  such  a  thing  was 
unknown."  "  In  rny  day  such  a  thing  would  not  have 
been  tolerated,"  &c.,  meaning  the  whole  period  of  their 
past  lives. 

In  these  cases  we  employ  the  word  to  mean  a  compara- 
tively short,  though  an  indefinite  period  of  time,  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  Scriptures  do,  and  from  which  we 
perhaps  have  derived  this  mode  of  expression.  But  when 
we  say  a  day,  or  first  day,  or  second  day,  we  mean  a  natu- 
ral day,  of  twenty-four  hours,  and  this,  and  no  other,  ac- 
cording to  the  best  philologists,  is  the  meaning  of  Scripture. 
But  this  point  we  must  refer  to  the  criticism  of  Prof.  Stuart, 
which  will  be  found  a  few  pages  forward. 

With  respect  to  the  geological  facts  which  Prof.  Silli- 
man  has  brought  forward,  in  order  to  show  a  physical  ne- 
cessity for  extending  the  length  of  the  Mosaic  days,  we 
had  seen  most  of  them  stated  in  other  works,  and  had  con- 
sidered that  although,  perhaps,  some  of  them  could  not  be 
satisfactorily  explained  in  the  present  state  of  geological 
knowledge,  yet  that  not  one  of  them,  taken  separately,  pre- 
sented a  single  point  which  any  man  could  show  to  be 
contradictory  to  the  common  reading  of  Genesis. 

If  we  take,  for  an  example,  Mr.  Mantel's  account  of  the 
Portland  and  Wealden  formations,  (p.  28,  29,)  which  are 
among  the  strongest  cases  Prof.  Silliman  has  adduced 
with  respect  to  apparent  age,  who  will  say  that,  under  the 
existence  of  former  circumstances,  these  formations  were 
not  began  and  finished  within  the  compass  of  a  few  centu- 
ries, or  at  most,  of  a  few  thousand  years. 

It  is  true,  that  the  deep  vegetable  soil,  containing  pebbles 
and  the  roots  of  petrified  trees,  the  stems  of  which  shoot 
into  the  limestone  strata  above, — the  fossil  remains  of  a 
tropical  forest ;  and  the  alternate  elevation  and  submersion 
of  the  island  itself,  would  seem  to  show  that  a  lapse  of 
ages  was  required  to  produce  the  phenomena  which  the 
geology  of  Portland  exhibits. 

And  so,  also,  of  the  Wealden  formation.  Its  diametei 
of  200  miles,  and  its  thickness  of  2000  feet,  would  seem 
to  point  back  to  a  very  remote  age  for  its  commencement. 

But  let  us  see,  for  a  moment,  what  evidence  these  phe 
nomena  exhibit  of  the  lapse  of  time. 

With  respect  to  vegetable  soil,  Mr.  Mantel  says  it  ap 
pears  to  be  such.  But  allowing  the  fact,  who  will  ven 


DAYS    OF    CREATION.  339 

ture  to  predicate  any  definite  length  of  time  on  its  forma- 
tion. Possibly  it  was  washed  into  its  present  location  j 
and  if  not,  if  it  was  formed  by  the  decay  of  vegetation,  even 
then  certainly,  no  immense  length  of  time  is  required  for 
its  production,  for  the  artificial  mounds  of  Ohio,  which 
contain  undecayed  human  bones,  are  covered  with  a  soil 
so  rich  as  to  produce  the  largest  trees  of  the  forest.  And 
besides,  it  is  understood  that  the  Portland  soil  was  formed 
under  a  tropical  climate. 

Neither  can  great  portions  of  time  be  predicated  on 
water-worn  stones,  since  those  on  our  shores  must  have 
been  formed  since  the  commencement  of  the  present  "  or- 
der of  things,"  which  all  naturalists  agree  was  compara- 
tively within  a  recent  period.  And  it  is  most  probable 
those  found  in  recent  strata  were  formed  before  the 
creation  of  organic  existences,  and  while  yet  "  darkness 
dwelt  upon  the  face  of  the  deep." 

With  regard  to  silicious  petrifactions,  into  which  the 
trees  were  changed,  it  is  acknowledged  that  we  know 
nothing  with  certainty,  of  the  length  of  time  required  to 
produce  this  change  on  the  Portland  fossils.  But  reason- 
ing from  analogy,  we  may  conclude  that  this  process  oc- 
cupied only  a  centurv  or  two  at  most,  since  we  know  that 
the  silicious  springs  of  St.  Michaels,  one  of  the  Azores, 
have  the  property  of  incrusting  vegetables  with  an  exter- 
nal coat  of  silex  in  a  very  short  time,  perhaps  in  a  day  or 
two,  and  that  as  fast  as  the  wood  decays,  its  place  is  sup- 
plied with  silicious  matter,  until  the  whole  is  replaced  by 
solid  stone. 

It  is  known,  also,  that  the  ends  of  cedar  posts  which  are 
set  into  the  ground,  sometimes  become  petrifactions,  be- 
fore their  upper  parts  are  entirely  decayed. 

We  may  therefore  believe,  that  where  this  change  is 
effected  at  all,  the  entire  process  is  completed  in  a  few  cen- 
turies. It  is  probable,  at  any  rate,  that  the  process  must 
cease  with  the  entire  absence  of  the  woody  matter. 

As  to  the  deposition  of  the  limestone,  embracing  these 
petrifactions,  we  have  again  no  means  except  that  of  anal- 
ogy, of  judging  at  what  rate  it  took  place,  and  therefore, 
perhaps  there  are  as  many  reasons  for  believing  that  it 
required  only  centuries,  rather  than  thousands  of  years,  for 
its  formation. 

We  know  that  limestone  is  constantly  forming  at  the 
pres?nt  day,  by  the  deposition  of  its  particles  from  water. 


340  DAYS    OF    CREATION. 

Thus,  in  Tuscany,  a  certain  spring,  or  rather  springs, 
deposit  solid  limestone,  at  the  rate  of  at  least  half  a  foot 
per  year,  making  a  formation  of  500  feet  thick  in  1000 
years,  or  of  3000  feet  thick  in  one  of  Mr.  Faber's  Mosaic 
days. 

In  reference  to  the  submersion  and  re-elevation  of 
Portland,  we  have  given  an  account  of  a  parallel  instance 
in  the  Temple  of  Serapis,  which  occurred  within  the  his- 
torical era.  See  p.  129. 

Now,  when  we  consider  that  the  several  processes 
forming  most  of  the  phenomena  exhibited  at  Portland 
Island,  might  have  proceeded  at  the  same  time,  viz.  those 
of  petrifaction,  fossilization,  and  the  deposition  of  limestone, 
where  is  the  necessity  of  disturbing  the  common  reading 
of  the  sacred  historian  in  order  to  gain  a  series  of  ages  to 
account  for  such  phenomena? 

Who  knows  what  preparations  took  place  for  the  pres- 
ent order  of  things,  while  "  the  earth  was  without  form 
and  void  ?"  and  what  man  can  say  what  violent  changes, 
what  dislocations  of  the  lower  strata,  and  what  upheaving 
of  mountains,  were  effected,  when  God  said  "  Let  the 
waters  under  the  heaven  be  gathered  together  into  one 
place,  and  let  the  dryland  appear?"  Undoubtedly  the 
most  tremendous  convulsions  took  place  at  that  command, 
by  which  hills  and  mountains  were  elevated,  and  the  great 
valleys  of  the  earth  formed. 

Days  of  Creation  indefinite  periods.  But  while  Prof. 
Silliman  sees  a  necessity  in  the  mechanism  of  the  earth, 
for  extending  "  the  days  of  creation  to  periods  of  time  of 
indefinite  length,"  (p.  65,)  he  finds  in  various  parts  of  the 
Scriptures  themselves,  full  liberty  to  make  such  an  inter- 
pretation. 

With  respect  to  the  word  day,  he  says,  it  could  have  had 
no  application  previous  to  the  revolution  of  the  earth,  be- 
fore an  illuminated  sun,  which  did  not  happen  until  the 
fourth  day.  But  we  think  it  has  been  shown,  that  when 
God  said,  "  Let  there  be  light,  and  light  was,"  then  the  sun 
was  created.  If  our  arguments  have  convinced  the  reader 
that  this  was  so,  then  this  objection  is  done  away. 

But  Prof.  Silliman  has  brought  many  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture where  the  word  day  evidently  signifies  a  longer  term 
than  twenty-four  hours;  in  some  instances  the  whole  of  a 
man's  life ;  in  others  it  is  used  for  a  set  time,  or  short  pe- 


DAYS    OF    CREATION.  341 

riod,  though  its  length  is  not  defined.  Examples  are,  "  So 
also  shall  the  son  of  man  be  in  his  day" — " Rejoiced  in 
my  day" — "  One  day  is  with  the  Lord  as  a  thousand 
years,  and  a  thousand  years  as  one  day" — "  These  are 
the  generations  of  the  heavens,  and  of  the  earth,  when  they 
were  created,  in  the  day  that  the  Lord  God  made  the  earth 
and  the  heavens," — "Shall  accomplish  as  an  hireling  his 
day," — "  Whose  day  is  come  when  iniquity  shall  have  an 
end," — "  He  will  not  spare  in  the  day  of  his  vengeance." 

In  all  these  cases,  and  more  might  be  selected,  it  is 
plain  that  the  word  day  is  not  confined  to  the  period  of 
twenty-four  hours. 

But  we  would  inquire  what  analogy  of  language,  or  of 
meaning,  exists  between  "  one  day  is  with  the  Lord  as  a 
thousand  years,"  and  "  the  evening  and  the  morning  were 
the  first  day,  or  the  second  day."  Or  indeed,  how  the  use 
and  meaning  of  the  word  day,  in  any  of  the  above  passages 
can  show  that  the  same  word,  when  defined  as  it  is  in  the 
narrative  of  the  creation,  between  the  morning  and  the 
evening,  signifies  an  indefinite  series  of  ages. 

If  a  man  says,  "  On  the  first,  or  second  day  of  my  arri- 
val, I  saw  the  king  ;"  and  at  the  close  of  his  narrative  tells 
us,  "  I  have  suffered  many  and  great  perils  in  my  day," 
who  would  understand  him  to  mean  by  these  different  uses 
of  the  same  word,  the  same  periods  of  time.  And  yet  we 
can  see  no  reason  why  this  is  not  as  fair  an  exegesis  of 
the  traveller's  account,  as  that  of  Genesis,  when  it  is 
maintained,  that  because  Moses  at  the  close  of  his  narra- 
tive employs  the  language,  "  in  the  day  that  the  Lord  God 
made  the  heavens  and  the  earth,"  therefore  the  terms  of 
time  which  he  had  before  defined  as  the  first  day,  and  the 
second  day,  signify  periods  of  indefinite  length. 

That  the  sacred  historian  understood  Him,  under  whose 
inspiration  he  wrote,  to  mean  that  the  world  was  created 
in  six  natural  days,  all  parts  of  the  narrative,  both  of  the 
creation  and  the  deluge,  amply  testify.  Professor  Silliman 
allows  that  Moses  so  understood  it. 

"  It  is  granted,"  says  he,  (p.  70,)  "  that  Moses  might 
have  understood  the  word,  (day,)  according  to  the  popular 
signification,  and  that  this  sense  would  be  the  most  obvi- 
ous one  to  every  mind  not  informed  as  to  the  structure  of 
the  globe ;  even  those  who  are  learned  on  other  subjects, 
but  ignorant  of  geology,  always  adopt,  in  this  case  the 
literal  and  obvious  meaning." 
29* 


342  DAYS    OF   CREATION. 

We  are  utterly  at  a  loss  what  to  say  of  this  concession 
of  the  learned  Professor.  Is  it  so  then,  that  the  servant 
of  the  Lord  God,  who  wrote  down  the  words  of  inspira- 
tion as  they  were  communicated  to  him,  was  so  deficient 
in  knowledge  or  understanding,  as  to  stand  corrected  by 
the  geologists  of  the  present  day  ?  Who  committed  the 
error  ?  Who  made  such  a  mistake  as  to  put  a  single  day 
for  myriads  of  years, — for  time  indefinite  ?  Was  it  Moses  ? 
Certainly  not,  for  he  only  acted  as  the  instrument  by  which 
God  communicated  to  this  wicked  world  the  narrative  of 
the  creation  and  the  fall  of  man.  Did  Moses  misunder- 
stand the  intent  and  meaning  of  the  inspired  communica- 
tions, or  is  his  language  such  that  it  may  convey  error 
instead  of  truth  ?  If  so,  why  have  not  errors  been  found 
in  other  parts  of  his  narrative.  Who  then  made  this 
mistake?  Before  we  venture  a  reply  to  this  question, 
had  we  not  better  ascertain  more  certainly  that  our  facts 
are  clearly  incompatible  with  the  sacred  history  as  it 
stands,  and  as  it  is  commonly  understood,  and  as  Moses 
understood  it? 

Coal  Formations.  But,  says  Professor  Silliman,  "  In 
the  usual  mode  of  understanding  the  account,  all  the  im- 
mense deposites  of  coal,  and  of  vegetable  and  aquatic  ani- 
mal remains,  with  their  vast  strata  and  mountains  must 
have  been  made  within  seventy-two  hours,  for  there  was 
no  dry  land  until  the  third  day,  and  consequently  no  ve- 
getables." (p.  69.)  *  *  "According  to  the  popular  under- 
standing," he  continues,  "  the  transition  and  secondary 
mountains,  with  their  coal  beds,  plants,  and  animals,  were 
therefore  formed  in  two  or  three  natural  days,  by  physical 
laws,  which  is  incredible,  because  it  is  impossible."  (p 
70.) 

It  is  believed  that  no  one,  who  has  given  the  least  at- 
tention to  this  subject,  ever  supposed  that  these  deposites 
were  made  within  three  days.  Nor  does  the  history  ren- 
der such  a  belief  at  all  necessary.  Coal  is  constantly 
forming  at  the  present  day,  as  is  proved  by  specimens  of 
lignite  partially  converted  into  that  substance.  The  dif- 
ferent formations  in  which  coal  is  found,  show  also  by 
their  different  ages,  that  coal  has  been  formed  at  variour 
periods  of  time. 

When  God  said,  "  Let  the  earth  bring  forth  grass,  the 
herb  yielding  seed,  and  the  fruit  tree  yielding  fruit  after 


DAYS  OF  CREATION.  343 

his  kind,"  there  is  no  doubt  but  the  dry  land  which  had  so 
recently  been  prepared,  was  immediately  covered  with  ve- 
getation, from  the  herb,  to  the  largest  trees  of  the  forest,  and 
these  all  in  full  maturity.  How  soon  after  this,  those  vio- 
lent changes  commenced,  which  swept  these  vegetables 
into  lakes  and  estuaries,  to  form  the  first,  or  lowest  beds  of 
coal,  is  unknown  to  us;  nor  can  we  now  ascertain  what 
periods  of  time  elapsed  between  the  formation  of  different 
beds  of  coal  lying  one  over  the  other,  twenty  or  thirty  of 
which  are  pierced  by  some  coal  shafts.  The  fact,  how- 
ever, of  superincumbent  coal  beds  is  sufHcient  to  prove, 
beyond  all  doubt,  that  the  vegetables  of  which  they  were 
formed,  were  deposited  at  different  periods  of  time. 

It  is  agreed  by  all  naturalists,  that  the  origin  of  coal 
was  wood,  but  no  one  has  yet  shown  what  the  conditions 
or  circumstances  were,  under  which  one  is  converted  into 
the  other,  and  much  less  the  time  which  nature  requires 
for  such  a  process. 

Now,  supposing  (and  no  one  can  show  to  the  contrary) 
that  the  wood  of  which  the  oldest  beds  of  coal  are  formed, 
was  gathered  immediately  after  the  last  day  of  creation ; 
then,  according  to  Dr.  Male's  Chronology,  we  have  2256 
years  for  the  carboniferous  process,  down  to  the  time  of  the 
deluge  ;  and  3155  years  more  for  the  same  process  to  con- 
tinue down  to  the  Christian  era,  making  5411  to  the  latter 
period;  the  whole  forming  a  lapse  of  7245  years  at  the 
present  time. 

It  is  true  that  many  coal  beds  are  at  great  depth  from 
the  surface,  and  the  strata  by  which  they  are  covered  are 
ancient,  though  not  primitive  formations ;  while  other  car- 
boniferous deposites  are  clearly  of  a  more  recent  date. 

But  since  it  is  impossible  to  determine  what  periods  of 
time  are  required  to  convert  wood  into  coal,  or  how  much 
time  elapsed  between  the  depositions  of  vegetable  matter 
forming  the  older  and  newer  beds,  and  as  we  know  nothing 
of  the  circumstances  or  degrees  of  heat,  under  which  this 
conversion  was  effected,  so  it  is  in  vain  to  conjecture  from 
any  analogy  observed  at  the  present  day,  at  what  period 
of  the  world  the  process  commenced. 

As  we  understand  the  inspired  historian,  there  is  allow- 
ed us  little  more  than  7000  years  in  which  to  account  for 
the  formation  of  coal  beds  and  their  phenomena,  and  yet, 
since  these  beds  were  formed  at  a  period  when  tropical 
plants  grew  to  enormous  sizes,  under  high  northern  lati- 


344 


DAYS  OF  CREATION. 


tudes,  and  when  this  globe  was  subject  to  mighty  convul- 
sions, they  might  have  been  formed  and  covered  with  the 
intervening  strata,  within  the  term  of  two  or  three  thou- 
sand years. 

With  respect  to  vegetable  and  animal  remains  found  in 
limestone  and  other  secondary  rocks,  we  are  equally  ig- 
norant of  the  periods  at  which  they  were  entombed,  and, 
therefore,  in  reference  to  time,  they  must  be  placed  on  the 
same  ground  with  the  coal  formations. 


At  the  close  of  his  treatise  on  the  "  Consistency  of  Geol- 
with  1 
wing 


ogy  with  the  Sacred  History,"  Professor  Silliman  has  the 


"  Suppose  that  there  are  inhabitants  at  the  poles  of  the 
earth,  how  might  they  understand  the  days  of  creation  1  to 
them  a  day  of  light  is  six  months  long,  and  a  night  of  dark- 
ness is  six  months  long,  and  the  day  made  up  of  night 
and  day,  covers  a  year,  and  it  is  a  day,  too,  limited  by 
morning  and  evening."  (p.  80.) 

As  this  stands  alone,  and  closes  Professor  Silliman's 
treatise,  we  are  led  to  suppose  that  the  question  it  contains 
was  considered  important  and  unanswerable.  We  must, 
therefore,  view  it  as  deserving  a  special  reply ;  and  if  we 
should  succeed  in  solving  the  problem  to  his  satisfaction, 
we  hope  thus  to  become  the  humble  means  of  advancing 
Professor  Silliman  one  step  towards  a  coincidence  of  opin- 
ion with  Moses,  in  respect  to  the  days  of  the  creation. 

In  the  first  place,  since  there  are  no  inhabitants  at  the 
poles,  the  supposition  itself  is  without  foundation,  and 
therefore  we  might  justly,  on  this  ground,  give  an  evasive 
answer ;  but  taking  no  such  advantage,  we  will  suppose 
that  the  poles  are  inhabited,  then  let  us  see  whether  the 
people  would,  or  would  not,  be  sensible  of  the  diurnal 
revolutions  of  the  earth. 

Our  answer  requires  it  to  be  remembered,  that  the  sun 
always  shines  on  just  one  half  of  the  earth,  and,  there- 
fore, that  the  vicissitudes  of  summer  and  winter — of  light 
and  darkness,  at  the  polar  circles,  are  caused  by  the  alter- 
nate approach  and  recession  of  these  parts  towards  and 
from  the  sun's  light. 

Now,  as  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions  alternately 
enjoy  the  light  of  the  sun,  so  they  must  of  necessity  be 


DAYS    OF    CREATION.  345 

alternately  immersed  in  the  dark  shadow  of  the  earth. 
But  this  alternate  change  cannot  take  place  without  throw- 
ing these  parts  into  such  a  position  with  respect  to  the 
sun,  that  his  rays  will  reach  both  poles  at  the  same  time, 
which  takes  place  twice  in  each  year,  to  wit,  on  or  about 
the  21st  of  September  and  the  21st  of  March,  therefore, 
at  these  seasons  there  is  a  diurnal  succession  of  day  and 
night  at  both  poles. 

Besides,  as  the  earth  gradually  turns  each  pole  in  suc- 
cession to\vards  the  sun,  so  the  line  dividing  the  annual 
darkness  from  the  light,  must  by  degrees  recede  from  and 
approach  each  pole;  and  as  the  earth  turns  constantly  on 
her  axis,  and  as  the  light  of  the  sun  alternately  reaches 
23°  beyond  each  pole,  it  is  clear  that  before  the  seasons 
of  total  night  and  entire  day  at  the  poles,  there  must  be 
there  a  period  when  day  and  night  succeed  each  other, 
making  together  twenty-four  hours,  as  they  do  at  the 
equator. 

Thus  it  is  plain  that  were  the  poles  inhabited,  the  peo- 
ple there,  equally  with  those  of  the  equator,  would  be  ac- 
quainted with  days,  "limited  by  morning  and  evening" 

These  inquiries  and  remarks  have  not  been  made  in  a 
spirit  of  contradicting  the  opinions  of  others,  but  under 
the  sober  conviction,  that  geology  as  yet  presents  no  facts 
which,  when  carefully  examined,  will  be  found  to  conflict 
with  the  Mosaic  history  of  the  creation,  as  it  is  commonly 
received,  and  as  it  is  allowed  the  sacred  historian  himself 
understood  it. 

Scripture  proof  that  the  Mosaic  days  were  of  common 
length.  Unless  these  days  were  of  common  length,  how 
can  the  sun  and  moon  "  be  for  signs,  and  for  seasons,  and 
for  days,  and  for  years?"  If  the  days  were  six  thousand 
years,  or  indefinitely  long,  what  must  have  been  the  length 
of  the  scripture  seasons  and  years  ? 

Again,  "  six  days  shall  thou  labor  and  do  all  thy  work, 
but  the  seventh  day  is  the  Sabbath  of  the  Lord  thy  God ; 
in  it  thou  shalt  do  no  work.  For,  in  six  days  the  Lord 
made  heaven  and  earth,  the  sea,  and  all  that  in  them  is,  and 
rested  the  seventh  day.  Wherefore,  the  Lord  blessed  the 
Sabbath  day,  and  hallowed  it." — Exodus  xx. 

Thus  it  appears  that  this  commandment  was  expressly 
founded  on  the  fact,  that  the  heavens  and  the  earth  were 
created  in  six  days,  and  is  designed  to  be  in  imitation  and 


346  DAYS    OF    CREATION. 

in  perpetual  commemoration  thereof.  "  Six  days  shall 
thou  labor  and  do  all  thy  work."  "  For  in  six  days  the 
Lord  made  heaven  and  earth."  But  the  seventh  day  is 
the  Sabbath,  "  in  it  thou  shall  not  do  any  work,"  for  the 
Lord  rested  on  the  seventh  day,  and  "therefore  blessed 
the  Sabbath  day  and  hallowed  it." 

Now  the  commandment  to  work  six  days,  and  rest  on 
the  seventh,  being  in  commemoration  of  the  work  of  crea- 
tion, and  of  the  resting  of  the  Creator,  after  it  was  finish- 
ed ;  we  would  inquire  whether  this  command  is  not,  in  ef- 
fect, an  express  declaration  that  the  creative  days  were  of 
the  same  length  as  those  on  which  men  were  commanded 
to  labor,  and  to  rest.  If,  therefore,  it  is  discovered,  that 
this  is  not  the  case,  then  we  may  humbly  conceive  that 
the  command  itself,  though  religiously  observed  through 
all  generations  to  the  present  time,  is  no  longer  binding 
upon  us;  for  if  the  days  of  creation  were  periods  of  1000 
years,  then  by  the  terms  and  connexion  of  the  command, 
men  are  required  to  labor  6000  years,  and  to  rest  1000 
years.  The  command,  therefore,  being  an  impossibility, 
we  are  not  bound  by  its  requirement. 

But  the  express  declaration  of  the  inspired  writer,  that 
"in  six  days  the  Lord  made  heaven  and  earth,"  cannot  by 
any  mode  of  exegesis  be  made  to  apply  to  other  than  or- 
dinary days,  for  this  declaration  refers  to  a  period,  when 
the  commandments  were  given  to  Moses,  that  is,  about 
2500  years  after  the  creation,  and  therefore  long  after  the 
ordinary  course  of  nature  had  been  established.  These 
days,  therefore,  could  only  have  referred  to  such  as  belong' 
ed  to  that  period. 

Criticism  of  Prof.  Stuart.  We  have  already  extended 
this  subject  much  further  than  was  originally  intended, 
but  still,  the  question  whether  the  Hebrew  word,  transla- 
ted day,  in  the  history  of  the  Creation,  admits  of  any  other 
meaning,  remains  to  be  more  particularly  examined. 

In  this  examination  we  must  depend  entirely  on  the 
opinions  of  Hebrew  philologists,  and  we  are  gratified  that 
it  is  in  our  power  to  offer  such  authority,  on  this  part  of 
our  subject,  as  that  of  Prof.  Stuart,  of  Andover,  first  sta- 
ting, that  the  Hebrew  word  yom  is  that  which  is  translated 
day,  the  plural  of  which  is  yamim. 

On  this  word,  Prof.  Stuart  writes  to  the  author  as  fol- 
lows: 


DAYS  OF  CREATION.  347 

"  The  inquiries  you  make  concerning  the  word  yarn,  in 
Genesis  i.,  1  will  briefly  answer.  It  does  not  signify  an 
indefinite  period  of  time,  but  always  some  specific  and 
definite  one,  when  employed  as  it  is  in  Gen.  i.,  in  the  sin- 
gular number.  It  sometimes  means  a  specific  day  of  the 
week ;  sometimes  to-day,  that  is,  this  day ;  sometimes  a 
specific  day,  or  season  of  calamity,  joy,  particular  duty, 
action,  suffering,  &c.  It  is  only  the  plural  yamim, 
which  is  employed  for  time  in  an  indefinite  way,  as,  in 
many  days  to  come,  days  of  my  life,  &c.  But  even 
here  the  plural,  in  most  cases,  is  a  limited  one — limited 
by  some  adjective,  numeral,  &c.,  and  yamim  signifies, 
therefore,  a  limited  portion  of  time;  often  it  stands  for  a 
year. 

"  In  general,  the  Hebrew  word  that  means  either  day  or 
days,  corresponds  quite  well  with  our  English  word,  by 
which  we  translate  it.  Thus,  when  we  say,  in  the  day  of 
his  calamity  he  will  repent ;  in  the  day  of  his  prosperity  he 
will  rejoice;  in  the  day  when  God  will  judge;  all  the  days 
of  his  life  ;  his  days  will  be  short ;  in  past  days ;  at  a  future 
day ;  &c.,  we  express  ourselves  in  all  respects  as  the  He- 
brew Scriptures  do. 

"  But  when  the  sacred  writer  in  Gen.  i.  says,  the  first 
day,  the  second  day,  &c.,  there  can  be  no  possible  doubt, 
none,  I  mean,  for  a  philologist,  let  a  geologist  think  as  he 
may, — that  a  definite  day  of  the  week  is  meant,  which 
definite  day  is  designated  by  the  numbers,  first,  second, 
third,  &c.  What  puts  this  beyond  all  question  in  philolo- 
gy, is,  that  the  writer  says  specifically,  that  the  evening 
and  the  morning  were  the  first  day,  the  second  day,  &c. 
Now,  is  an  evening  and  a  morning  a  period  of  some  thou- 
sands of  years?  Is  it  in  any  sense,  when  so  employed,  an 
indefinite  period?  The  answer  is  so  plain  and  certain 
that  I  need  not  repeat  it. 

"  Plain  as  it  is,  however,  I  have  never  seen  a  geologist 
notice  it.  He  has  his  reasons,  no  doubt,  for  this,  and  one 
reason,  also,  mny  be,  that  he  analyzes  his  rocks  and  his 
coal  strata  somewhat  better  than  he  does  Hebrew  roots. 
What  have  a  priori  speculations,  however,  to  do  with  such 
a  matter?  If  Moses  has  given  us  an  erroneous  account 
of  the  creation,  so  be  it.  Let  it  come  out,  and  let  us  have 
the  whole.  But  do  not  let  us  turn  aside  his  language  to 
get  rid  of  difficulties  that  we  may  have  in  our  specula- 
tions. 


348  DAYS  OF  CREATION. 

"  When  the  great  Lord  of  the  Sabbath  ordained  that 
the  seventh  day  of  the  week  should  be  kept  as  holy  time, 
because  'on  the  seventh  day,  God  rested  from  all  his 
work,  and  finished  his  work  in  six  days,'  how,  in  the  name 
of  common  sense,  did  Moses  expect,  in  communicating 
such  a  command,  that  the  people  of  Israel  would  under- 
stand him  as  meaning  a  period  of  6000  years,  for  each  of 
the  days  in  which  God  created  ?  And  if  they  did  so  un- 
derstand him,  what  reason  could  this  be  for  the  Hebrews 
to  keep  holy  every  seventh  day  of  the  week  ?  The  whole 
thing  bears  on  the  face  of  it  the  appearance  of  something 
monstrous  and  incredible.  No  philologist  can  ever  be- 
lieve it. 

"  Then  as  to  the  taste  of  such  a  conceit.  The  Creator, 
'  who  spake  and  it  was  done ;  who  commanded  and  it  stood 
fast,"  who  said,  'let  there  be  light,  and  light  was;'  this 
great  and  glorious  Creator — the  Almighty  God,  36,000 
years  in  making  a  world  ! 

"  Andover,  5th  Feb.,  1833." 

Mr.  Penris  Criticism.  It  is  believed  that  few,  at  the 
present  day,  will  venture  to  throw  themselves  into  the 
scale  of  philology  in  opposition  to  Professor  Stuart;  and 
yet  to  show  the  coincidence  of  authority  on  this  point,  we 
will  quote  the  opinion  of  another  able  critic,  who,  at 
the  same  time,  has  spent  many  years  in  geological  inves 
tigations. 

In  the  sequel  of  twenty  octavo  pages,  which  Mr.  Gran 
ville  Penn*  has  written  on  this  subject,  he  comes  to  the 
following  conclusions,  and  which  the  reader  may  observe 
are  precisely  those  of  Prof.  Stuart. 

"  The  Hebrew  noun  yarn,  which  means  day,  is  always 
definite  in  its  import,  and  essentially  exclude^  the  wide 
and  extensive  notion  which  we  attach  to  the  English  word 
period.  The  peculiar  signification  of  yamim,  the  plural 
of  yarn,  is  a  point  totally  irrelative  to  the  present  question, 
which  turns  exclusively  upon  the  singular  yom ;  that  sin- 
gular noun,  which  is  the  word  used  by  Moses  in  his  history 
of  each  day  of  the  creation,  and  which  alone  we  have  to 
consider,  never,  in  any  single  instance,  denotes  a  year,  but 


*  Author  of  the  "  Comparative  Estimate  of  the  Mineral  and  M<h 
saical  Geologies."    London,  1825, 2d  Ed.      ' 


DAYS    OF    CREATION.  349 

I 

only  each  of  the  individual  parts  of  a  year,  which  lie  be- 
tween t\vo  sun  sets.  It  is  true,  that  it  is  sometimes  repre- 
sented as  denoting  time,  but  in  that  case  it  always  denotes 
and  defines  actual  time,  or  time  actually  impending — and 
we  might  with  just  as  much  foundation  affirm,  that  the 
Greek  singular  hemera,  the  Latin  dies,  the  French  jour, 
or  the  English  day,  are  terms  peculiarly  indefinite,  and 
would  be  more  accurately  expressed  by  periodus,  periode, 
and  period,  as  to  affirm  it  of  the  Hebrew  singular  yom. 

Since  then  yom  in  the  singular,  is  the  term  applied  by 
Moses  to  each  of  the  six  days  of  creation — since  the  ope- 
rations executed  in  each  of  those  days  were  creative  acts, 
to  which  acts  time  could  contribute  no  co-operation — and 
since  the  series  of  those  six  days,  with  the  following- 
seventh  day,  were  specially  presented,  as  the  exemplar  of 
seven  days,  to  be  perpetually  observed  from  thenceforth, 
in  sequence  and  succession,  in  imitation  and  commemo- 
ration of  them — there  is  no  ground  whatever,  either  in 
true  criticism,  or  true  philosophy,  that  will  at  all  either 
authorize  or  justify  an  interpretation  of  the  days  of  crea- 
tion different  from  that  which  they  received  from  the  age 
of  the  historian  until  a  recent  date — namely,  a  measure  of 
time  lying  between  two  sun-sets.* 

Thus  it  appears  beyond  all  doubt,  that  the  Hebrew 
word  yom,  which  is  translated  day,  as  it  is  employed  in 
the  Mosaic  history  of  the  creation,  cannot  be  extended  to 
a  period  beyond  twenty-four  hours,  without  a  gross  mis- 
interpretation, or  wilful  violation  of  the  plain  and  obvious 
meaning  of  the  sacred  writings. 


WHAT  ARE  THE  GEOLOGICAL   FACTS  WHICH  CONTRADICT 
THE  COMMON  UNDERSTANDING  OF  GENESIS. 

Having,  we  hope,  shown  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  read- 
er, that  the  hypothesis  of  a  longer  period  than  six  natural 
days,  for  the  completion  of  the  work  of  creation,  is  not 
only  unwarranted  by  the  terms  of  the  common  transla- 
tions, but  is  entirely  incompatible  with  many  other  pas- 
sages of  Scripture ;  having  also  proved  by  the  best  philo- 


*  Comparative  Estimate,  vol.  i.  p.  288—295. 
30 


350  DAYS   OF    CREATION. 

logical  authorities,  that  the  terms  in  which  the  history  of 
the  creation  was  originally  written,  cannot  be  made  to 
signify  that  a  day  of  creation  was  a  period  of  more  than 
one  diurnal  revolution  of  the  earth  ;  we  will  now  examine 
some  of  the  facts  and  circumstances,  which  have  been 
supposed  not  to  coincide  with  the  common  reading  of 
Genesis. 

We  have  shown  in  the  preceding  work,  that  it  is  not 
an  uncommon  circumstance  to  find  shells,  plants,  and  the 
bones  of  various  animals,  in  the  deep  strata  of  the  earth, 
and  we  have  stated  that  many  of  these  are  of  species  now 
unknown,  and  are,  therefore,  considered  extinct. 

Some  authors  who  are  professed  believers  in  the  truths 
of  inspiration,  have  proposed  to  account  for  these  appear- 
ances, by  supposing  that  there  have  been  many  successive 
creations  before  the  earth  was  brought  to  its  present  form, 
and  sometime  between  that  period  called  in  Scripture, 
"the  beginning,"  and  the  time  when  the  present  races 
were  created.  In  this  manner  it  has  been  proposed  to 
avoid  the  difficulty  concerning  the  Mosaic  days;  to  ac- 
count for  the  extinction  of  the  lost  species  during  the  lapse 
of  ages,  and  thus  give  geologists  ample  time  to  reconcile 
all  the  appearances  which  the  earth  presents,  both  with 
reason,  philosophy,  and  scripture. 

The  only  ground  on  which  it  can  be  claimed  that  such 
a  hypothesis  may  be  reconciled  with  Scripture  is,  that  we 
are  not  bound  to  believe  the  work  of  creation  detailed  by 
Moses  was  the  first,  since  we  are  nowhere  told  that  this 
was  the  case ;  and,  as  it  is  plain,  that  the  heavens  and  the 
earth  were  created  before  that  time,  that  is,  in  the  "be- 
ginning," why  may  we  not  suppose  that  animals  of  the 
lower  orders,  such  as  live  under  water,  might  not  also 
have  been  created  at  that  time?  It  appears  to  us,  how- 
ever, that  this  doctrine  cannot  be  adopted  by  those  who 
acknowledge  the  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures;  for,  besides 
its  want  of  coincidence  with  what  is  implied  in  the  history 
of  the  creation,  namely,  that  the  work  was  commenced 
on  the  first  day  and  finished  on  the  sixth,  we  are  express- 
ly told  in  Ex.  xx.  that  the  whole  creation  was  begun  and 
finished  within  the  compass  of  six  days. 

We  are  bound,  therefore,  by  the  terms  of  the  Scrip- 
tares,  to  believe  that  every  organic  substance,  found  in 
the  strata  of  rocks,  however  ancient  they  may  appear  to 
be,  and  whether  of  plants,  fish,  or  quadrupeds,  originated 


DAYS    OF    CREATION.  351 

within  the  six  days  of  creation,  mentioned  by  Moses,  and 
that  these  are  the  exact  representations  of  their  parents 
then  made,  or  the  parents  themselves  of  all  similar  races 
now  existing1. 

It  is  in  vain  to  undertake  to  support  the  Scriptures  by 
denying  some  parts  and  adopting  others,  as  best  suits  our 
convenience.  As  well  may  we  reject  the  whole  at  once, 
for  if  one  part  is  false,  all  are  so.  Hence,  if  we  can  be- 
lieve that  a  single  plant  or  shell,  found  in  the  earth,  was 
created  before  the  period  alluded  to  in  Genesis,  it  would 
be  useless  to  declare  our  assent  to  the  truth  of  the  Scrip- 
tures generally,  (and,  at  the  same  time,  account  for  this 
appearance,  by  supposing  a  more  ancient  creation  than  is 
mentioned  by  Moses,)  since  the  account  he  gives  excludes 
any  such  idea ;  and,  consequently,  the  two  facts  cannot  be 
made  to  coincide  with  the  history.  To  suppose,  therefore, 
that  the  organic  remains  of  strata  were  formed  before  the 
time  alluded  to  in  Genesis,  implies  a  denial  of  the  truth  of 
that  history. 

Strata  supposed  to  be  more  ancient  than  is  allowed  by 
Moses.  Some,  of  the  secondary  strata  which  have  ap- 
peared to  geologists  to  claim  a  more  remote  antiquity 
than  the  Mosaic  history  allows,  are  of  the  following 
kinds : 

First.  Limestone,  containing  shells  of  extinct  species, 
and  which,  from  their  situations,  bear  marks  of  great  ap- 
parent antiquity.  "  It  must  always  have  been  evident  to 
unbiased  minds,"  says  Mr.  Lyell,  "  that  successive  strata, 
containing,  in  regular  order  of  super-position,  distinct  beds 
of  shells  and  corals,  arranged  in  families,  as  they  grow  at 
the  bottom  of  the  sea,  could  only  have  been  formed  by  in- 
sensible degrees,  in  a  great  lapse  of  ages." 

Second.  The  great  number  of  different  strata,  observed 
in  some  formations,  and  occasionally  amounting  to  seve- 
ral thousands,  are,  in  the  opinions  of  others,  sufficient  to 
indicate  a  lapse  of  time  which  the  sacred  history  does  not 
recognise. 

Third.  The  great  amount  of  alluvial  matter,  known  to 
exist  in  some  lakes,  and  the  formation  of  land  on  the  bor- 
ders of  certain  seas,  (considering  how  slowly  these  de.- 


352  DAYS    OF    CREATION. 

positions  take  place,  have  been  thought  to  indicate  more 
time  than  can  be  accounted  for  by  the  common  under- 
standing of  the  Scriptures. 

Fourth.  Allowing  that  every  kind  of  limestone  has 
been  formed  of  shells,  how  is  it  possible,  inquires  another, 
that  at  their  present  rate  of  increase,  such  immense  moun- 
tains of  this  rock  couM  have  been  formed  within  the  pe- 
riod of  6000  years  ? 

Fifth.  The  coal  formations,  being  supposed  of  vege- 
table origin,  seem  to  prove  that  plants  were  in  existence 
at  a  period  vastly  more  remote  than  their  creation,  ac- 
cording to  the  Mosaic  history. 

Lastly.  The  fossil  remains  of  various  animals,  the 
species  of  which  are  now  supposed  to  be  extinct,  and 
which  appear  to  have  been  in  existence  before  the  cre- 
ation of  man,  are  thought  to  show  that  more  time  elapsed 
before,  or  during  the  progress  of  the  creation,  than  is  indi- 
cated by  the  vulgar  understanding  of  Genesis. 

These,  and  a  great  variety  of  other  circumstances  and 
appearances,  have  been  declared,  by  some  naturalists,  to 
be  entirely  inconsistent  with  the  supposition  that  organized 
beings  were  only  brought  into  existence  within  the  recent 
period  of  6000  years. 

The  reader  will  observe,  that  the  evidence,  if  so  it 
maybe  called,  in  all  these  cases,  is  merely  circumstantial, 
and  entirely  dependent  on  the  opinions  of  the  observers  ; 
and  that  hence,  while  some  could  see  nothing  in  the 
facts,  Avhich  might  not  be  accounted  for  within  the 
period  of  a  few  thousand  years,  others  would  see  appear- 
ances which  could  be  reconciled  only  with  the  lapse  of 
ages. 

Our  ignorance  concerning  the  formation  of  strata.  In 
reasoning  on  the  facts  which  the  strata  of  the  earth  pre- 
sent, we  are  under  the  necessity  of  bringing  them  to  the 
test  of  some  hypothesis  which  we  may  adopt,  and  which 
we  believe  most  likely  to  account  satisfactorily  for  them, 
by  considering  the  circumstances  under  which  they  ap- 
pear to  exist.  For,  having  never  witnessed  the  formation 
of  such  rocks,  we  are  obliged  to  reason  entirely  from 
analogy,  and  to  draw  our  conclusions  from  such  parallel 


DAYS    OF    CREATION.  353 

facts,  as  our  own  experience,  or  that  of  others,  may  happen 
to  furnish  us. 

Of  the  actual  circumstances  under  which  these  strata 
were  formed,  or  jthe  time  necessary  for  this  purpose,  we 
are  entirely  ignorant,  and  this  is  acknowledged  by  the 
most  experienced  geologists. 

On  this  subject,  Daubuisson  speaks  as  follows :  "  The 
nature  of  this  cause,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  acted,  are 
most  likely  removed  for  ever  from  our  knowledge;  no  ef- 
fect of  the  same  kind  is  ever  now  produced.  All  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  divisions  of  the  mineral  masses  into 
strata,  both  in  the  primitive  and  actual  states,  are  very  far 
from  being  known  to  us ;  and  we  are  constrained  to  say, 
that  to  determine  respecting  stratification,  its  circumstances 
and  its  laws,  still  remains  a  problem  to  be  resolved,  and 
is,  perhaps,  the  most  important  one  in  geology."* 

"  We  are,"  says  Baron  Cuvier,  "  in  the  most  absolute 
ignorance,  respecting  the  causes  which  have  occasioned 
the  diversity  in  the  substances  of  which  strata  are  com- 
posed. We  are  unacquainted  even  with  the  agents  which 
may  have  held  some  of  them  in  solution;  and  it  is  still 
disputed  respecting  several  of  them,  whether  they  owe 
their  origin  to  the  agency  of  fire  or  water."! 

De  Luc  speaks  to  the  same  effect.  "  These  strata,"  says 
he,  "  the  formation  of  which  has  entirely  ceased,  must  have 
been  the  effects  of  primordial  causes  which  no  longer  sub- 
sist.'^ 

Notwithstanding  such  opinions,  and  sounder  ones  do  not 
exist  on  this  subject,  st:ll  there  are  those  who,  not  con- 
tented with  knowing  the  facts  as  they  are,  begin  to  conjec- 
ture, concerning  the  manner  in  which  these  formations 
we/e  deposited,  and  bringing  everything  down  to  the  test 
of  their  own  knowledge,  wisdom,  and  experience,  come 
fort  h  with  a  body  of  facts  which  show  most  clearly  that 
th«*  common  understanding  of  some  parts  of  the  sacred 
writings  must  be  entirely  changed,  to  accord  with  these 
discoveries,  otherwise  the  whole  Christian  code  will  be  in 
jeopardy.  Thus  declaring  that  the  Creator,  in  the  forma- 
tion of  this  world,  could  not  have  subjected  matter  to  natural 
laws  which  men  cannot  now  explain,  without  jeopardizing 
the  whole  moral  code  which,  in  mercy,  he  has  given  us. 


*  Daubuisson,  Book  1,  p.  352.  t  Prelim.  Disc.  p.  27 

t  De  Due.  Lett.  Geol.  p.  72. 

P-0* 


354  DAYS    OF    CREATION. 

"  It  is  revolting  to  reason"  says  Mr.  Granville  Penn, 
"  and,  therefore,  to  true  philosophy,  to  observe  how  stren- 
uously physical  science,  though  expatiating  on  the  won- 
ders of  creation,  has  labored  to  exclude  the,  Creator  from 
the  details  of  His  own  works,  straining  every  nerve  of  in- 
genuity to  ascribe  them  all  to  secondary  causes  ;  and  with 
what  undisguised  relief  of  thought,  it  exchanges  the  idea 
of  God  for  that  of  nature."* 

So  far  as  we  know,  all  writers  who  have  brought  geo- 
logical phenomena  to  contradict  the  common  reading  of 
the  Scriptures,  have  reasoned  on  general  circumstances 
and  appearances,  rather  than  on  particular  facts.  Whether 
this  has  arisen  from  a  tenderness  towards  the  Scriptures, 
connected  with  a  desire  to  keep  such  glaring  facts  as  exist 
from  the  knowledge  of  the  world,  for  its  moral  good,  we 
do  not  pretend  to  know.  But  we  do  not  hesitate  to  be- 
lieve, that  no  one  has  yet  published  a  single  geological 
fact,  which,  when  fairly  and  candidly  examined,  would 
in  the  opinion  of  sound  judgment  and  discretion,  be  found 
to  stand  in  the  light  of  such  proof,  against  the  common 
reading  of  Genesis,  as  would  be  required  to  invalidate 
the  foundation  of  any  well  grounded  opinion,  commonly 
received  among  men. 

Inferences  from  organic  strata.  Concerning  the  strata 
containing  shells,  although  their  appearance  proves  no- 
thing with  respect  to  the  period  at  which  they  were  form- 
ed, (any  further  than  that  this  must  have  been  since  the 
creation  of  the  living  remains  which  they  contain,)  or  the 
time  occupied  in  their  formations ;  still,  from  certain  cir- 
cumstances, we  may  fairly  draw  several  conclusions  con- 
cerning them.  Thus,  the  fact  that  they  contain  shells, 
shows  that  they  were  formed  under  water;  and  since  one 
series  of  strata  rest  upon  another,  this  proves  that  the  low- 
est series  were  formed  first.  The  shells,  and  the  stratified 
structure  of  these  rocks,  also  indicate  that  the  matter  of 
which  they  are  composed  was  deposited  from  water. 

As  a  matter  of  hypothesis,  we  may  infer  also,  that  the 
lower  strata  of  these  rocks  were  formed  during  the  time 
when  the  earth  was  passing  from  a  state  of  chaos,  to  that 
more  perfect  condition  which  it  assumed,  during,  and 


*  Comparative  Estimate,  vol.  i.  p.  117. 


DAYS    OF    CREATION.  355 

after  the  creation  of  animals ;  for,  at  that  period,  there  it 
reason  to  believe  that  the  agitation  of  the  waters  conse- 
quent upon  the  changes  which  took  place,  would  cause 
them  to  transport  and  deposite  large  quantities  of  loose 
matter  from  one  place  to  another.  Meantime  the  rapidly 
multiplying  creatures  of  the  water,  which  undoubtedly 
were  originally  created  in  all  parts  of  the  sea,  might  be 
supposed  to  have  been  swept  along  with  the  turbid  waters, 
and  fallen  to  the  bottom  with  their  deposites.  Nearly  all 
parts  of  the  earth  show  that  the  present  dry  land  has  been 
thrown  up  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea ;  but  evidently  not 
at  the  same  time,  and  the  fact  that  these  elevated  strata 
contain  shells,  shows  that  this  land  was  under  water  at  the 
time,  and  perhaps  long  after  the  creation  of  animals.  The 
convulsions  by  which  these  strata  were  elevated,  may  be 
well  supposed  to  have  occasioned  movements  in  the  water, 
by  which  depositions  of  great  depth,  containing  shells, 
might  have  been  made  in  a  short  period. 

No  geologist  can  prove  at  what  epoch  these  elevations 
of  land  took  place.  Some  have  supposed,  indeed,  that 
the  shells  they  contain  were  formed  while  "  darkness  was 
upon  the  face  of  the  deep,"  and  before  "the  waters  were 
gathered  together  into  one  place."  But  this,  as  we  have 
shown,  supposes  a  creation  anterior  to  that  detailed  in 
Genesis;  and,  therefore,  as  the  strata  themselves  contain 
nothing  which  contradicts  the  hypothesis,  that  they  were 
formed  after  the  creation  of  animals,  it  is  most  reasonable 
to  believe  that  this  was  the  case. 

With  respect  to  the  great  number  of  different  strata 
which  some  formations  present,  no  practical  geologists  of 
the  present  day,  would  ever  propose  to  offer  them  as  indi- 
cations of  absolute  time.  Dr.  Macculloch,  in  his  account 
of  the  "Western  Isles,"  has  described  a  tract  of  country, 
which,  says  he,  "  may  be  considered  as  exceeding  twenty 
miles,  on  a  line  taken  transversely  to  the  bearings  of  the 
strata;  and  throughout  this  space,  computing  from  enume- 
rations taken  at  different  places,  there  are  probably  not 
less  than  40,000  strata."  This  great  number  is  owing  en- 
tirely to  displacements  occasioned,  probably,  by  subterra- 
nean convulsions.  "  It  is  probable,"  says  the  author, 
"that  this  tract  consisted  once  of  a  series  of  horizontal 
strata,  of,  perhaps,  four  substances  only;  and  that,  in  con- 
sequence of  numerous  displacements,  they  have  assumed 
the  complicated  and  deceptive  appearances  which  they 


356  DAY8    OF    CREATION. 

now  present.7'*  These  four  substances  are  quartz  rock, 
mica-slate,  chlorite-slate,  and  hornblende-slate. 

In  another  part  of  his  work,  the  same  author  says,  "  Ge- 
ologists have  endeavored  to  compute  the  antiquity  [that  is 
of  the  earth]  by  various  means,  often  by  very  '  childish 
chronometers,'  when  deposites  of  peat,  and  accumulations 
of  stalactites,  have  been  adduced  as  measurers  of  time. 
Thus,  also,  by  measuring  the  annual  depth  of  earth  depos- 
ited in  the  valley  of  Egypt,  it  has  been  attempted  to  fix 
the  period  at  which  the  Nile  begun  to  flow.  But  this  is 
equally  vain  ;  since  the  multitude  of  modifying  causes 
must  render  all  such  deposites  useless,  even  as  the  means 
of  an  approximation,  independently  of  the  fact  that  all  are 
not  the  produce  of  rivers."! 

This  is  considered  a  sufficient  reply,  with  respect  to 
computing  time  by  the  number  of  strata. 

Limestone  formations.  But  if,  as  many  have  supposed, 
limestone  is  an  animal  product,  the  vast  masses  of  this 
rock,  which  occur  inmost  countries,  are  much  the  strong- 
est proofs  which  the  earth  exhibits  of  her  antiquity.  The 
oldest  limestone,  however,  exhibits  no  marks  of  organic 
origin,  but  is  arranged  among  primitive  rocks,  as  may  be 
seen  by  the  tabular  arrangement  in  the  preceding  volume. 
It  is  the  secondary  limestone  only  which  contains  shells, 
and  it  cannot  be  denied,  that,  in  some  instances,  consider- 
able beds  of  this  species,  appear  to  be  almost  entirely  com- 
posed of  these  remains.  But  there  is  much  difference  in 
this  respect,  in  different  formations  which  are  considered 
of  the  same  age.  In  the  oolitic  group  of  Western  Europe, 
shells  are  very  abundant,  while  in  the  Italian,  Alpine,  and 
Grecian  limestones,  which  represent  the  same  series,  very 
few  organic  remains  are  found.;}:  It  may  be  difficult  to 
account  satisfactorily  for  this  disparity,  if  these  rocks 
were  formed  at  the  same  time  and  of  the  same  materials. 

Possibly,  however,  the  Italian  limestones  were  formed 
at  the  mouths  of  ancient  rivers,  whose  waters  passing 
through  primitive  limestone  countries,  brought  down  cal- 
careous matter,  which  being  deposited  in  a  shallow  sea, 
might  embrace  the  shells  there  growing.  At  the  same 


*  System  of  Geology,  vol.  i.  p.  93.  t  Vol.  ii.  p.  60. 

*  Dela  Eeche,  I\'.an.  Geol.  p. 323. 


DAYS  OF  CREATIOS.  357 

time  we  may  suppose,  that  the  European  limestones  were 
formed  in  deep  water,  out  of  the  reach  of  such  calcareous 
deposites ;  and,  therefore,  consists  entirely  of  shells. 

Be  h  of  shells  formed  by  sea  currents.  But  the  great 
difficulty  on  this  subject,  is  to  conceive  how  such  vast  beds 
of  organic  limestone  could  have  been  formed  of  shells, 
without  requiring  millions  of  years  for  their  growth.  It 
was  in  consideration  of  this  subject  that  the  Editor  of  the 
Quarterly  Review,  vol.  xlii.,  (1829,)  declares  that  the  earth, 
instead  of  being  millions  of  years,  was  millions  of  ages  in 
forming. 

The  idea  of  geologists,  who  require  so  much  time  for 
these  formations,  appears  to  be,  that  the  shells  must  of  ne- 
cessity have  gro\vn  and  perished  in  the  exact  places  where 
their  remains  are  now  found,  and  that  one  generation  must 
have  lived  on  the  remains  of  the  other,  in  succession,  until 
they  formed  the  masses  which  we  now  see. 

But  there  is  not  the  slightest  probability,  from  the  very 
nature  of  the  case,  that  this  was  the  mode  in  which  these 
masses  were  formed.  For,  in  many  instances,  we  find 
them  of  considerable  thickness  in  the  centre;  gradually  be- 
coming thin  towards  the  edges,  and  of  small  extent;  the 
very  form  a  mass  of  shells  would  have  assumed  had  they 
been  swept  together  by  currents  of  the  sea,  and  quite  dif- 
ferent from  that  which  would  have  been  produced  had 
they  lived  and  died  on  each  other.  In  the  latter  case,  there 
is  no  reason  why  these  masses  should  ever  assume  the  form 
of  hills,  but,  on  the  contrary,  we  should  naturally  suppose 
that  in  similar  climates,  and  under  the  same  circumstances, 
these  testacea  would  increase  as  rapidly  in  one  place  as 
in  another,  and  thus  that  the  strata  they  formed  would  be 
widely  extended,  and  every  where  of  the  same  thickness. 
Whereas,  we  find  that  beds  of  shells,  in  the  same  vi- 
cinity, are  often  entirely  insulated.  Besides,  many  of 
these  shells  are  known  to  be  such  as  burrow  in  the  sand 
and  mud,  and  unless  we  suppose  that  these  masses  were 
formed  by  currents,  we  are  under  the  necessity  of  be- 
lieving that  such  species  forsook  their  natural  haunts,  for 
the  purpose  of  living  and  dying  on  the  remains  of  their 
ancestors. 

Besides,  we  know  from  the  reports  of  naval  men,  who 
have  been  employed  in  surveying  sea  coasts  in  various 
countries,  that  beds  of  shells  are  constantly  forming  at  the 


338  DAYS  Or  CREATION. 

bottom  of  the  ocean,  by  the  agency  of  the  currents,  and 
sometimes  at  the  depth  of  several  thousand  feet. 

In  the  strait  of  Gibraltar,  Capt.  Smyth  found  shells  al 
the  depth  of  950  fathoms,  carried  thither  probably  from 
comparatively  shallow  parts,  by  the  strong  current  which 
flows  through  that  channel.  Capt.  Vidal  detected  on  the 
coast  of  Ireland  large  quantities  of  shells,  at  depths  vary- 
ing from  forty-five  to  190  fathoms;  and  also  in  the  same 
region  a  bed  of  fish  bones  extending  two  miles  along  the 
bottom  of  the  sea,  in  eighty  and  ninety  fathoms  of  water. 

"Analogous  formations,"  says  Mr.  Lyell,  "are  in  pro- 
gress in  the  submarine  tracts  extending  from  the  Shetland 
Islands  to  the  north  of  Ireland,  wherever  sounding  can  be 
procured.  A  continuous  deposite  of  sand  and  mud,  replete 
with  broken  and  entire  shells,  echini,  &c.,  has  been  traced 
for  upwards  of  twenty  miles  to  the  eastward  of  the  Fa- 
roe Islands,  usually  at  the  depth  of  from  forty  to  100  fath- 
oms. In  one  part  of  this  tract,  fish  bones  occur  in  ex- 
traordinary profusion,  so  that  the  lead  cannot  be  drawn  up 
without  some  vertebra?  being  attached.  This  '  bone  bed,1 
as  it  is  called  by  the  surveyors,  is  three  miles  and  a  half  in 
length."* 

The  sea,  undoubtedly,  is  almost  every  where  forming 
beds  of  shells  by  its  currents  in  the  same  manner,  and 
which  in  the  course  of  a  few  centuries  at  longest,  might 
reasonably  be  supposed  to  form  stratified  organic  rocks,  of 
hundreds  of  feet  in  thickness,  cemented  by  the  sedimentary 
matter  of  rivers,  with  which  the  sea  abounds  on  every 
coast.  How,  then,  does  it  become  necessary  to  allow  ages 
of  time  for  these  formations. 

The  objection  that  has  been  brought  against  the  theory 
of  accumulation  by  currents,  in  the  fact  that  many  or  most 
of  the  shells  still  retain  their  sharpest  angles  and  most 
delicate  parts  uninjured,  will  be  found  of  little  weight,  when 
the  circumstances  are  considered. 

All  shells  will  swim  in  water  of  sufficient  depth,  even 
after  the  animal  has  perished ;  and,  under  water  of  mo- 
derate depth,  most  species  will  float  to  great  distances 
without  the  slightest  injury.  In  several  extinct  species, 
which  are  found  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  limestone, 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  shell  was  so  near  that  of  water, 


*  Vol.  iii  p.  295. 


DAYS  OF  CREATION.  859 

lhat  the  animal  had  the  power  of  raising  or  sinking  itself 
at  pleasure,  probably  by  drawing  in  or  throwing  out  a 
little  of  that  element.  Such  were  the  many-charnbered 
univalves  already  described  and  figured,  the  Nautilus,  the 
Ammonites,  and  the  Orthoceratites. 

On  the  coast  of  England,  in  places  where  the  current 
is  so  swift  as  to  remove  deep  channels  in  the  regular 
strata,  and  where  rocky  masses  are  often  precipitated  into 
the  sea,  there  still  live  fragile  shells  and  tender  zoophytes, 
(corals  and  sponges,)  in  abundance,  and  in  the  midst  of 
these  violent  movements.* 

There  is,  therefore,  we  conceive,  no  difficulty  in  sup- 
posing, that  shells  might  have  been  swept  into  beds  from 
great  distances,  and  still  retain  their  finest  lines  and 
sharpest  angles.  Those  which  we  find  on  beaches,  where 
they  have  been  constantly  exposed  to  the  friction  of  the 
sand,  by  the  motion  of  the  surf,  bear  no  analogy  of  cir- 
cumstances to  those  which  remain  in  deep  water. 

Vast  number  of  shells  created.  Under  the  hypothesis, 
that  all  secondary  limestone  has  originated  from  living  ex- 
istences, and  has  been  formed  within  a  few  thousand  years, 
we  must  believe  that  vast  numbers  of  these  tribes  were 
originally  created,  and  that  they  have  multiplied  with  great 
rapidity. 

With  respect  to  the  number  created,  we  are  bound  to 
believe  that  it  was  peculiarly  great,  from  the  terms  of  the 
history,  for  in  no  other  instances  is  the  same  language 
employed.  "  Let  the  waters  bring  forth  abundantly  the 
moving  creature,"  are  the  words  of  the  command;  and 
we  shall  see,  in  this  case,  a  coincidence  between  the  Scrip- 
tures and  the  facts  of  geology  and  natural  science,  not  be- 
fore noticed. 

As  the  terms  of  the  command  were  general,  ("  Let  the 
waters  bring  forth,")  so  must  have  been  the  effect;  and  we 
are  therefore  bound  to  believe,  that  this  creation  was  not 
confined  to  particular  portions  of  the  sea,  but  that  the 
waters  in  all  parts  of  the  earth  brought  forth  an  abundance 
of  living  creatures,  and  we  need  not  stop  to  show  that 
shells  are  included  in  this  creation. 


*  lAfeU't  Geology,  vol.  i.  p.  308. 


360  DAYS  Or  CREATION. 

Rapid  progress  of  Conchology.  There  \z  reason  to  be- 
lieve, that  no  department  of  nature  is  so  abundantly  sup- 
plied with  species  and  varieties,  as  Conchology.  It  is  true 
that  there  are  at  present,  more  known  species  of  plants 
than  of  shells,  but  the  facility  of  collecting  the  former,  to- 
gether with  the  connexion  which  botany  has  with  medi- 
cine and  domestic  economy,  makes  it  the  more  interesting: 
and  important  science.  Yet,  it  is  believed  that  the  com- 
parative number  of  new  species  of  shells,  recently  discov- 
ered, have  been  much  greater  than  those  of  plants. 

Perhaps  some  judgment  may  be  formed  of  the  pro- 
gress of  conchology,  and  the  vast  number  of  species 
which  probably  still  remain  to  be  discovered,  by  compar- 
ing the  system  of  Linnaeus  with  that  of  Lamarck.  The 
former  naturalist  describes  only  thirty-six  genera  of  shells, 
while  the  latter  has  determined  and  described  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  genera;  and  many  new  species  have  been 
discovered  within  the  few  years  since  the  last  work  was 
written.  Hence  we  may  infer,  that  conchology  is  only  in 
its  infancy,  at  least  with  respect  to  the  number  of  species 
known,  and  that  it  is  probable,  thousands  of  species,  if  not 
of  genera,  still  remain  to  be  discovered  in  this  department 
of  nature. 

The  number  of  known  species  belonging  to  some  of  the 
Linnaean  genera  are  already  very  numerous,  and  new  ones 
are  almost  every  day  accumulating.  Of  the  genus  Conus, 
Mr.  Mawe  names  170  species,  and  of  the  genus  Voluta 
200  species,  and  of  each  of  these,  there  are  numerous  va- 
rieties.* 

The  subject  of  fossil  conchology  has  still  more  recently 
attracted  the  attention  of  naturalists,  but  when  we  come 
to  examine  the  catalogues  of  extinct  species,  which  have 
already  been  determined,  and  consider  that  these  have 
been  discovered  in  those  few  places  on  the  earth,  where 
excavations  have  been  made,  chiefly  for  economical  pur- 
poses, we  cannot  avoid  being  struck  with  an  idea  of  the 
vast  multitude  of  these  species  which  the  earth  contains, 
the  most  of  which  still  remain  unknown. 

Of  the  genus  Ammonites,  there  have  been  determined 
and  named  159  species,  not  one  of  which  are  now  sup- 


*  Mawe's  Conchology,  p.  87—105 


DAYS  OF  CREATION.  361 

posed  to  be  in  the  living  state.*  Of  the  genus  Cerithium, 
seventy  fossil  species  are  known,  and  of  the  genus  Tere- 
bratula,  fifty  species  have  been  determined,  and  catalogues 
of  both  given. f 

In  the  oolitic  limestone  alone,  there  has  been  already 
tiscovered  and  described,  not  less  than  1000  species  of 
shells,  a  great  proportion  of  which  occur  in  England.^  In 
the  Paris  basin,  the  species  long  since  enumeratad,  amount- 
ed to  1200,  and  an  equal  number  have  been  found  in  the 
more  modern  formations  of  the  subapennine  hills.§ 

Now,  when  if  is  considered  that  these  investigations 
have  only  just  commenced,  and  that  the  parts  of  the  earth 
which  have  been  examined  are  mere  points,  when  com- 
pared even  \vith  the  secondary  portions  of  the  whole  ;  when, 
we  remember,  also,  that  most  of  the  recent  species  known, 
have  been  picked  up  along  the  shores  rather  by  accident 
than  through  any  scientific  design ;  and  that  the  wide 
oceans,  the  distant  reefs,  and  the  deep  waters,  are  still  un- 
explored,— and  when  we  compare  these  circumstances 
with  that  of  the  number  of  shells  already  known,  we  can- 
not but  conclude,  that  there  must  be  in  the  earth,  and  in 
the  sea,  thousands,  perhaps  millions,  of  species,  which  the 
eye  of  man  has  never  yet  seen. 

From  this  vast  number  of  species  which  it  is  thus  cer- 
tain have  existed,  or  do  still  exist,  we  are  led  to  see  the 
propriety  of  the  peculiar  language  which  Moses  employs 
with  respect  to  the  first  act  of  the  fifth  day's  creation ;  for 
since  all  these  species  were  commanded  into  being  at  that 
time,  the  term  abundantly,  as  applied  to  these  animals, 
and  these  exclusively,  has  a  literal  and  appropriate  mean- 
ing. 

It  has  been  shown  under  the  article,  "  Change  of  Cli- 
mate," that  the  temperature  of  the  earth  was  formerly- 
much  greater  than  at  present,  and  it  is  well  known  that 
shells  of  the  same  tribes  increase  in  size,  in  some  propor- 
tion to  the  heat  of  the  climate  where  they  are  found.  It 
is  also  a  general  law,  that  animals  multiply  most  rapidly 
in  hot  climates.  It  may,  therefore,  be  fairly  inferred,  that 
much  larger  quantities  of  organic  limestone  wrould  have 


*  De  La  Beche,  Manual,  p.  364.    t  See  Parkinson's  Fossil  Or- 
ganic Remains,    f  De  La  Beche's  Catalogue,  Manual,  p.  323—369. 
5  Lyell's  Geology,  vol.  i.  p.  151. 
31 


362  DAYS  OF  CREATION. 

been  formed  during  the  same  period,  anciently,  than  at 
present.  But  who  knows  what  beds  of  this  rock  are  now 
forming  in  the  depths  of  the  oceans,  and  who  will  know 
until  they  are  elevated  for  the  inspection  of  geologists  ? 

Conclusions  from  the  above  facts.  From  all  the  facts 
and  circumstances  thus  stated,  may  we  not  draw  the  fol- 
lowing inferences. 

First.  That  testaceous  animals  were  originally  created 
in  great  abundance,  and  in  every  part  of  the  sea. 

Second.  That  these  animals  increased  much  more  rap- 
idly under  the  ardent  heat  of  the  ancient  world,  and  attain- 
ed much  larger  sizes  than  at  present. 

Third.  That  beds  of  shells  were  formed  by  the  cur- 
rents of  the  sea,  and  not  by  their  accumulation  upon  each 
other,  by  natural  increase. 

These  inferences  being  admitted,  may  we  not  conclude, 
that  it  is  possible  all  the  shell  limestone  which  is  known 
to  exist,  might  have  been  formed  by  constant  accumula- 
tions within  the  period  of  the  nearly  2000  years  which 
have  elapsed  between  the  creation  and  the  deluge. 

Secondary  limestone  not  always  formed  of  shells.  It  is 
not  necessary,  we  should  suppose,  that  all  secondary  lime- 
stone has  been  formed  of  shells,  for  we  find  that  this  pro- 
cess is  constantly  going  on  at  the  present  day,  by  means  of 
water  containing  carbonaceous  particles.  It  has  already 
been  stated  that  the  waters  of  San  Filippo  formed  strata 
of  solid  carbonate  of  lime  at  the  rate  of  thirty  feet  in  twenty 
years,*  and  which,  therefore,  during  the  period  above 
named,  supposing  the  same  process  to  continue,  would 
form  a  mass  of  limestone  3000  feet  thick,  which  would  ex- 
ceed any  known  limestone  formation  in  depth.  In  various 
other  places,  similar  depositions  are  forming. 

It  has  also  been  stated  in  the  preceding  volume,  that 
limestone,  containing  shells,  is  now  constantly  accumula- 
ting at  the  delta  of  the  Rhone,  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Large  masses  are  continually  taken  up  from  that  place,  of 
arenaceous  rocks,  cemented  by  calcareous  matter,  including 
multitudes  of  shells,  of  recent  species.  A  cannon  was 


*  LyclPs  Geology,  vol.  i.  p.  204. 


DAYS    OF    CREATION.  363 

also  discovered  and  taken  up  at  the  same  place,  imbedded 
in  crystalline  limestone.* 

The  Coral  islands  and  reefs,  also  exhibit  vast  accumu- 
lations of  calcareous  matter,  which  at  the  present  day  are 
constantly  increasing.  That  on  the  coast  of  New  Hol- 
land extends  in  an  uninterrupted  course  to  the  length  of 
350  miles,  and  with  others,  form  a  continuous  line  of  1000 
miles  in  length,  varying  from  twenty  to  sixty  miles  in 
breadth,  and  is  probably  from  1000  to  1500  feet  in  depth. 
This,  if  thrown  up  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  would  form 
a  mountain  of  organic  limestone,  of  far  greater  extent  than 
any  now  known  to  exist  on  the  face  of  the  earth. f 

Now  this  immense  mass  of  organic  calcareous  matter 
has  been  forming  only  since  the  commencement  of  what 
geologists  call  "the  present  order  of  things,"  or  since  the 
sea  has  occupied  its  present  bed,  and  which  all  agree  was 
not  at  a  very  remote  period,  certainly  not  more  than  6000 
years  ago,  and  yet  this  is  acknowledged  by  geologists  to 
be  the  most  extensive  range  of  organic  mountains  in  ex- 
istence. "  It  far  exceeds,"  says  Dr.  Macculloch,  "any  that 
are  known  in  the  extent  of  its  range.":}: 

When  such  a  formation  is  seen  and  known,  or  acknow- 
ledged, to  be  but  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  why  is  it 
necessary,  to  suppose  that  other  organic  formations,  which 
took  place  in  the  depths  of  the  ocean,  and  of  which  we 
know  nothing  except  by  conjecture,  should  have  required 
millions  of  years  for  their  production? 

The  truth  is,  that  no  man  can  prove  at  what  period  the 
ancient  rocks  were  formed,  by  their  appearance,  or  by 
any  series  of  intrinsic  circumstances  attending  them,  nor 
can  he  show,  with  any  degree  of  certainty,  how  long  a 
period  was  required  for  their  production.  All  agree  that 
the  organic  rocks  were  formed  under  the  waters  of  the 
ocean,  and,  therefore,  that  their  growth  was  concealed  from 
all  observation.  The  few  analogies  that  can  be  adduced 
of  similar  formations,  seem  to  show  that  the  lapse  of 
many  ages  is  not  required  to  produce  extensive  calca- 
reous formations.  Who  knows  what  exists  in  the  bottom 
of  the  ocean  at  the  present  day  ?  or  what  geologist  will 
deny  that  the  elevation  of  a  few  square  miles  of  land 


*  Lyell's  Geology,  p.  234.          t  See  the  preceding  vol.  p.  64. 
t  System  of  Geology,  vol.  i.  p.  339. 


3C4  DAYS    OF    CREATION. 

from  the  middle  of  the  Atlantic,  might  not  entirely 
change  all  existing  theories  with  respect  to  the  age  of 
the  earth  ? 

Doctrine  of  successive  creations.  The  doctrine  of  a 
succession  of  creations,  by  which  some  writers  have  pro- 
posed to  account  for  the  organic  relics  which  they  suppose 
more  ancient  than  those  described  in  Genesis,  is  not  only 
opposed  to  the  implied  meaning  of  Scripture,  as  already 
noticed,  but,  if  we  are  not  mistaken,  it  contradicts  one  of 
the  most  important  and  interesting  series  of  facts  which 
geology  has  unfolded,  and  which  we  have  taken  especial 
pains  to  establish  in  the  preceding  pages,  viz.  that  there 
exists,  in  the  strata  of  the  earth,  a  regular  gradation  of 
organic  substances,  from  the  lowest  plants  to  highest  or- 
ders of  animals,  and  that,  in  this  respect,  there  is  an  exact 
coincidence  between  revelation  and  geology.  Now,  if 
there  have  been  many  successive  and  distinct  creations, 
each  creation  must  have  been  either  of  the  same  kind  as 
that  which  took  place  before  it,  or  of  a  different  kind.  If, 
for  instance,  the  first  creation  was  cryptogamous  plants, 
of  one  species,  and  the  second  creation,  plants  of  the  same 
tribe,  of  another  species,  the  first  becoming  extinct  before 
the  second  came  into  existence ;  then  we  are  to  suppose 
that  the  soil  and  climate  of  the  whole  earth  was  every- 
where the  same,  and  that  for  thousands  of  years  it  was 
fitted  for  nothing  but  cryptogamia.  This  would  only  seem 
to  show  that  one  species  was  ordered  out  of  existence, 
merely  that  another  might  be  created,  under  precisely  the 
same  circumstances,  and  thus,  that  the  Creator,  for  thous- 
ands of  years,  (if  so  long  is  required  by  the  theorist,)  oc- 
cupied the  earth  only  with  the  lowest  vegetables.  When 
plants  of  the  higher  orders  came  into  existence,  we  have 
to  suppose  a  recurrence  of  the  same  corresponding  pro- 
cess ;  and  so  of  the  testacea,  amphibia,  and  mammalia,  the 
earth  being  fitted  for  each  class  in  succession,  and  no  other, 
and  that  many  species  of  each  class  were  alternately 
created,  and  permitted  to  go  out  of  existence. 

That  the  doctrine  of  successive  creations  can  be  true  on 
no  other  grounds,  is  shown  by  the  well  ascertained  geolo- 
gical facts,  above  mentioned,  viz  :  that  the  order  in  which 
organized  remains  occur  in  strata,  from  below  upwards,  is 
thus :  cryptogamous  plants,  dicotyledonous  plants,  testacea, 
amphibia,  and  mammalia. 


DAYS  OF  CREATION.  365 

Now  had  different  parts  of  the  earth  been  prepared  for 
each  of  these  classes  at  the  same  time,  or  had  a  creation, 
at  the  same  epoch,  consisted  of  plants,  testacea,  amphibia, 
and  mammalia,  the  remains  of  these  ought  now  to  be 
found  in  series  of  strata,  by  themselves,  and  when  these 
became  extinct,  to  be  followed  by  another  series  in  the 
same  manner,  whereas  we  find,  in  truth,  that  the  lower 
strata,  never  contain  the  relics  of  the  more  perfect  animals, 
but  only  those  of  plants,  shells,  &c. 

The  doctrine  of  successive  creations,  therefore,  cannot 
be  maintained  as  geologically  true,  unless  we  suppose  that 
the  lower  orders  only  were  created ;  then  annihilated,  and 
again  replaced;  and  that  the  same  law  was  followed  with 
respect  to  the  other  orders  of  creation ;  for  on  no  other 
hypothesis,  will  the  several  creations  correspond  with  the 
succession  of  remains  which  the  strata  contain. 

This  notion,  if  not  ridiculous,  is  at  least  derogatory  to 
the  Wisdom  and  Power  of  the  Creator. 

Does  not  reason  as  well  as  religion,  therefore,  dictate, 
that  before  the  Holy  Scriptures,  or  any  part  of  them,  are 
wrested  from  their  plain  and  obvious  meaning,  (or  from 
the  sense  in  which  they  have  been  universally  understood 
by  the  whole  Christian  world,)  in  order  to  adapt  them  to 
what  have  appeared  to  some  to  be  geological  facts,  that 
these  facts  should  be  more  clearly  established  than  they 
appear  to  be  at  present?  Will  it  not  be  in  time  to  change 
the  meaning  of  Moses,  when  geology  clearly  shows,  that, 
with  all  his  inspiration,  he  was  in  an  error?  or,  at  least, 
until  geologists  agree  with  respect  to  the  points  in  which 
he  was  mistaken?  Still,  we  are  entirely  opposed  to  the 
suppression  of  any  geological  fact  because  it  seems  to 
bear  against  revelation.  Let  the  whole  truth  come  forth, 
in  a  fair  and  impartial  manner,  and  if  the  Scriptures  cannot 
stand  against  it,  let  them  fall.  No  truth  is  impious,  nor 
will  facts,  in  the  light  of  the  present  age,  ever  convict  their 
discoverer  of  heresy. 

We  do  not  deny  the  remote  antiquity  of  the  earth;  it 
was  created  at  the  "  beginning,"  and,  therefore,  as  formerly 
remarked,  men  may  speculate  with  safety  on  the  changes 
it  suffered  while  "  it  was  without  form,  and  void,  and 
darkness  was  upon  the  face  of  the  deep."  Here,  revela- 
tion is  no  guide  with  respect  to  time,  and  theorists  may 
call  millions  of  ages  to  their  aid  in  accounting  for  the  phe- 
nomena which  the  ancient  world  presented.  But,  from 
31* 


366  DAYS  OF  CREATION. 

the  period  when  plants  and  animals  were  created,  we  have 
a  guide,  at  least,  with  respect  to  certain  parts  of  the  earth's 
history,  which  no  one  may  contradict  by  mere  inferences, 
and  from  which  guide,  no  believer  in  revelation  can  de- 
part with  propriety  or  safety. 

We  have  no  room,  at  present,  to  notice  the  other  rea 
sons  which  have  been  brought  to  show  the  great  antiquity 
of  secondary  strata,  nor  is  this  necessary,  since  they  are 
chiefly  predicated  on  grounds  already  examined. 

Opinions  of  Geologists  with  respect  to  the  antiquity  of 
the  present  form  of  the  Earth. — In  concluding  the  sub- 
ject of  the  Mosaic  days,  and  the  earth's  antiquity,  we 
will  cite  the  opinions  of  two  or  three  geological  wri- 
ters, who  appear  to  have  carefully  investigated  these 
points. 

Dr.  Ure. — "  We  may,"  says  Dr.  Ure,  "  ask,  why  we 
should  claim,  in  behalf  of  our  globe,  a  more  ancient  ori- 
gin than  that  assigned  by  the  inspired  chronologist? 
Will  its  rank,  dignity,  and  importance,  be  enhanced  by  a 
remote  genealogy?  Is  not  this  a  taint  of  the  pride  of 
ancestry  common  to  the  whole  family  of  man?  But  how 
can  it  be  safely  gratified?  Even  lynx-eyed  science  can 
pierce  the  dark  veil  of  creation  no  further  than  common 
vision." 

Again,  "  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  any  commentators  of 
Scripture,  misled  by  the  fancied  necessity  of  certain  geo- 
logical schemes  of  stratiform  superposition,  should  have 
vexed  themselves  and  their  readers,  in  torturing  the  He- 
brew words  for  day,  and  evening,  and  morning,  into  many 
mystical  renderings.  That  Moses  attached  no  such  vague 
meaning  to  the  creative  days  in  Genesis,  is  evident  from 
the  language  of  the  fourth  commandment  in  Exodus, 
•  Six  days  shalt  thou  labor,'  "  &c.* 

Dr.  Macculloch. — Says  Dr.  Macculloch,  "They  who 
have  attempted  a  conciliation,  by  altering  the  lengths  of 
the  periods,  have  taken  an  unnecessary,  as  well  as  an  un- 
warrantable liberty  of  interpretation;  since  they  thus  wrest 
the  plain  words  of  Scripture  to  their  own  evil  purposes ; 


*  New  System  of  Geology,  p.  11. 


DAYS    OF    CREATION.  367 

too  ignorant  to  perceive  the  unbounded  hazard  of  such 
a  principle.  And  it  may  surprise  them  to  be  told,  boast- 
ful as  they  have  been,  that  they  have  not  even  read  with 
understanding  the  plainest  passages  of  a  book,  which  is 
far  more  often  read  than  considered,  and  much  too  often 
read  for  the  purpose  of  confirming  a  religious  hypothesis, 
not  for  discovering  the  truth."* 

Baron  Cuvier.  "We  see,"  says  Baron  Cuvier,  "that 
even  in  confining  themselves  to  the  limits  of  Genesis, 
naturalists  have  a  wide  field  before  them ;  they  soon  found 
themselves  in  difficulties,  and  when  they  had  succeeded 
in  attributing  to  the  six  days  of  creation,  indefinite  pe- 
riods, ages  costing  them  nothing,  their  systems  took  a 
flight  proportioned  to  the  intervals  which  they  could  dis- 
pose off 

Ignatius  Paradisi.  Ignatius  Paradisi,  a  learned  ec- 
clesiastic of  Florence,  has  advanced  a  theory  by  which 
the  facts  established  by  Cuvier  concerning  the  revolutions 
of  the  globe,  are  reconciled  with  the  Mosaic  cosmogony. 

The  first  of  these  revolutions,  is  that  which  displaced 
the  materials  of  which  the  surface  of  the  globe  is  formed, 
from  their  original  position ; — elevating  the  mountains,  and 
forming  the  great  valleys  which  the  earth  now  presents. 
At  this  time  "  darkness  dwelt  upon  the  face  of  the  deep," 
no  organized  beings  had  been  created,  and  hence  among' 
the  primitive  rocks  no  fossil  remains  are  found. 

The  second  revolution,  or  series  of  revolutions,  formed 
the  strata  now  called  secondary,  and  in  which  are  inclu- 
ded innumerable  remains  of  plants  and  animals.  Hence, 
these  revolutions  took  place  after  God  had  said,  "  Let  the 
earth  bring  forth  grass,"  and  "  Let  the  waters  bring  forth 
abundantly  the  moving  creatures  that  hath  life." 

Geologists  have  attempted  to  show,  that  between  these 
revolutions,  there  must  have  been  an  indefinite  series  of 
ages,  and  an  equal  number  of  creations  and  annihilations 
of  organized  beings,  at  least  before  the  races  now  in  exist- 
ence were  brought  into  being. 

But,  says  Paradisi,  it  does  not  seem  reasonable  to  at- 
tribute to  a  long  duration  of  time,  the  production  of  those 


*  Geology,  vol.  ii.  p.  62.  t  Revolution  of  the  Globe,  p.  38. 


368  DAYS    OF    CREATION. 

phenomena  of  the  causes  and  agents  of  which  we  are  en- 
tirely ignorant.  We  find,  at  first,  that  "  The  earth  was 
without  form  and  void,"  Gen.  i.  2,  and  how  long  it  was 
in  this  state,  we  are  not  told.  But  when  the  "  Spirit  of 
God  moved  upon  the  face  of  the  waters,"  then  took  place 
those  first  revolutions,  the  origin  and  cause  of  which, 
geologists  have  so  vainly  attempted  to  conjecture.  With 
respect  to  the  agents  employed  to  effect  this  revolution, 
we  are  entirely  ignorant.  It  is  sufficient  for  us  to  show 
that  nothing  in  geology  is  opposed  to  the  expressions  of 
revelation,  but,  on  the  contrary,  that  all  the  new  discoveries 
tend  to  confirm  its  truth. 

Who  will  not  perceive,  in  the  expression,  "  The  Spirit 
of  God  moved  upon  the  face  of  the  waters,"  the  origin  of 
these  first  revolutions,  for  the  historian  immediately  pro- 
ceeds to  describe  the  effects  produced.  "  Let  there  be 
light."  "  Let  there  be  a  firmament."  "  Let  the  waters 
under  the  firmament  be  congregated,"  and  "  Let  the  dry 
land  appear." 

To  see,  in  an  instant,  light  divided  from  darkness ;  wa- 
ters formed  into  seas,  and  the  dry  ground  appearing  at  the 
command  of  the  Omnipotent,  what  is  it  but  to  exhibit  the 
most  violent  changes. 

Could  the  work  of  the  third  day,  when  the  mountains 
were  elevated,  the  waters  gathered",  and  the  dry  land  made 
to  appear,  have  been  performed  without  convulsing  the 
earth  to  her  centre  ?  And  how  vain  would  it  be  to  seek  to 
reduce  such  phenomena  to  the  ordinary  laws  of  nature  ?  As 
vain  as  to  attempt  to  explain,  by  the  laws  of  vegetation,  the 
sudden  production  of  ripe  fruits ;  or  by  those  of  animal  phy- 
siology, the  instant  creation  of  a  man  in  full  size  and  vigor. 
Says  Cuvier,  "the  methods  of  nature  are  changed.the  thread 
of  her  operations  is  broken,  and  none  of  the  agents  she 
now  employs,  could  have  produced  her  ancient  works." 

The  second  series  of  revolutions  happened  when  our 
earth  was  clothed  with  vegetation,  and  full  of  living  be- 
ings, with  the  exception  of  man,  having  also  many  species 
of  animals  now  extinct.  These  revolutions  are  indicated 
by  the  remains  of  plants  and  animals,  found  in  the  strata 
of  our  globe. 

At  this  period,  only  a  single  pair  of  our  race  were  in 
existence.  They  were  placed  in  the  garden  of  Eden,  but 
they  sinned  and  fell.  "  Cursed  be  the  ground  for  thy 
sake,"  said  God  to  Adam;  and  who  can  tell  what  horrible 


DAYS    OF    CREATION.  369 

revolutions  this  earth  was  made  to  suffer,  when  this  awful 
malediction  was  pronounced  1  We  may  believe  that  with 
the  exception  of  such  as  were  in  paradise,  every  creature 
which  had  life,  perished,  and  that  the  whole  earth  was 
changed  into  a  dreary  desert,  fit  only  to  produce  briars 
and  thorns.  In  this  awful  change  ought  we  not  to  see 
that  revolution  which  buried  such  innumerable  numbers 
of  plants  and  animals  in  the  strata  of  the  earth,  and  whose 
remains  we  find  at  this  day? 

"  Thorns  and  thistles  shall  it  bring  forth  to  thee ;  and 
thou  shall  eat  the  herb  of  the  field,"  was  the  terrible  sen- 
tence which  the  sin  of  man  brought  upon  the  earth,  and 
upon  himself 

We  know  Avith  certainty  that  the  earth  has  suffered  a 
revolution,  which  buried  the  productions  of  her  surface  in 
its  ruins ;  and  it  is  a  fact  of  sacred  history,  that  this  same 
earth  was  cursed  of  God,  and  that  in  consequence  of  that 
curse  it  \vas  suddenly  and  entirely  transformed,  and  laid 
waste.  Nor  can  any  known  cause,  except  this  curse,  be 
assigned  with  any  degree  of  probability  to  account  for  this 
revolution.  Why,  then,  have  recourse  to  a  long  succes- 
sion of  ages  to  explain  such  phenomena  ?  Time  is  not 
of  itself  an  agent  of  nature.  No  extent  of  time  can  give 
to  nature,  forces  which  it  does  not  possess,  nor  agents  of 
which  it  is  manifestly  destitute. 

If  we  inquire  where  was  man,  and  the  animals  which 
survived  this  revolution,  the  historian  informs  us.  They 
were  all  in  the  Paradise  of  delights.  Without  inquiring 
into  the  site  of  Paradise,  it  is  evident  that  it  was  separated 
from  the  earth  which  was  cursed.  This  appears  evident 
from  the  expressions,  Plantaverat  autem  Dominus  Deus, 
Paradistim  Voluptatis ;  But  the  Lord  God  had  planted  a 
Paradise  of  pleasure ;  and  afterwards,  Tulit  ergo  Domi- 
nus Deus,  hominem  et  posuit  eum  in  Paradiso  voluptatis. 
Therefore  the  Lord  God  took  man  and  placed  him  in  the 
Paradise  of  delight.  It  evidently  follows  that  Paradise 
was  a  very  different  place  from  that  earth  which  was  cur- 
sed, and  which  was  afterwards  destined  to  be  the  abode 
of  Adam  and  his  posterity.  Here,  therefore,  our  first  pa- 
rents dwelt  with  all  the  animals  which  survived  the  ca- 
tastrophe consequent  upon  the  curse  God  had  pronounced. 
The  fossil  bones  which  are  found  so  abundantly  at  the 
present  day,  belonged  to  animals  which  had  been  dispersed 
over  the  earth.  These  all  perished,  and  hence  many  of 


370  INDIAN    ASTRONOMICAL    TABLES. 

their  species  remain  extinct,  while  the  species  which  were 
in  Paradise  are  those  which  now  exist.  Paradise  was  then 
the  only  place  of  refuge,  as  the  ark  afterwards  was  during 
the  deluge.  Thus  may  these  singular  phenomena  be  ex- 
plained by  the  sacred  history,  and  under  its  faithful  guid- 
ance do  we  recognise  the  second  series  of  revolutions, 
exhibited  by  the  aspect  of  our  earth. 

These  are  the  opinions  of  some  of  the  most  enlightened 
men  who  have  lately  written  on  this  long  controverted 
subject,  and  we  may  remark  in  general,  that  the  more 
that  is  known  of  geology,  the  greater  is  the  number  of  ad- 
vocates for  allowing  the  common  reading  of  the  Scrip* 
tures  to  remain,  under  a  belief  that  further  investigations 
will  destroy  every  ground  of  excuse  for  a  change  in  the 
obvious  meaning  of  Moses. 


INDIAN    ASTRONOMICAL    TABLES. 

Since  we  are  on  the  subject  of  the  connexion  between 
the  sciences  and  revelation,  we  will  end  our  labors  by 
briefly  citing  two  or  three  instances,  in  which  infidelity, 
for  a  time,  was  allowed  to  triumph  over  the  Scriptures,  in 
such  a  manner  as  seemed  to  show,  that  either  the  demon- 
strations of  the  exact  sciences  must  be  false,  or  the  writ- 
ings of  Moses  could  not  be  true.  But  the  reader  will  see, 
that  in  these  as  well  as  in  all  other  cases,  inspiration  has 
proved  itself  the  test  of  truth. 

The  Hindoo,  or  Indian  Tables,  were  calculated  by  the 
astronomers  of  India,  and  were  supposed,  by  many,  to 
substantiate,  in  no  small  degree,  the  pretensions  of  the 
Hindoos  to  the  vast  antiquity  which  they  have  always 
claimed  for  their  nation.  Here,  it  was  said,  were  mathe- 
matical calculations  of  great  abstruseness  and  accuracy, 
made  by  these  people,  thousands  of  years  anterior  to  the 
epochs  at  which  any  European  nation  could  trace  its 
origin. 

Th'ese  tables  were  first  published  in  Europe  by  M. 
Bailly,  a  Frenchman,  who  claimed  a  high  standing  in  the 
world  for  learning  and  eloquence.  But  had  it  not  been 
for  the  influence  of  Professor  Playfair,  of  Edinburgh,  they 
would  have  been  little  known,  and,  therefore,  would  have 
had  little  influence  in  depreciating  the  veracity  of  Mosea. 


INDIAN  ASTRONOMICAL  TABLES.  371 

In  a  paper  which  this  learned  professsor  read  before  the 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  in  1788,  he  declared  his  un- 
qualified belief  in  the  truth  and  solidity  of  this  Hindoo 
production. 

No  professor  in  Europe  had,  at  that  period,  attained  to 
a  higher  eminence  in  the  department  of  mathematics,  than 
Playfair;  and  being  withal  a  man  of  amiable  manners,  and 
the  most  eloquent  of  scientific  writers,  his  open  avowal  of 
the  truth  of  a  series  of  mathematical  calculations,  designed 
to  prove  that  the  Christian  had  no  foundation  for  his  be- 
lief, could  not  but  have  produced  strong  emotions  in  the 
public  mind.  Some  who  had  never  before  doubted,  now 
began  to  waver ;  while  others  who  had  before  tried  to  be- 
come skeptics  now  had  sufficient  excuse,  as  they  thought, 
to  come  out  downright  infidels. 

Professor  Playfair's  commentary  on  the  Indian  Astrono- 
my was  published  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for 
1790.  He  there  says,  that  "it  is  through  the  medium  of 
astronomy  alone,  that  a  few  rays  from  those  distant  ob- 
jects, (the  primitive  inhabitants  of  the  earth,)  can  be  con- 
veyed in  safety  to  the  eye  of  the  modern  observer,  so  as  to 
afford  him  a  light,  which,  though  scanty,  is  pure  and  un- 
broken, and  free  from  the  false  coloring  of  vanity  and  su- 
perstition." Thus  declaring,  that  it  is  through  the  me- 
dium of  astronomy,  and  not  through  that  of  revelation, 
that  we  are  to  look  for  any  knowledge  of  antiquity, 
"  which  is  pure,  and  free  from  the  false  coloring  of  van- 
ity and  superstition.'1 

With  respect  to  the  tables  themselves,  Professor  Play- 
fair  says,  "that  on  grounds  which  have  now  been  explain- 
ed, the  following  general  conclusions  appear  to  be  estab- 
lished. The  observations  on  which  the  astronomy  of  In- 
dia is  founded,  were  made  more  than  3000  years  before 
the  Christian  era,  (consequently  650  years  before  the  del- 
uge, by  the  Hebrew  chronology,)  and,  in  particular,  the 
places  of  the  sun  and  moon,  in  the  beginning  of  the  Caly- 
youg,  or  age  of  misfortune,  that  is  3102  years  before  the 
Christian  era,  were  determined  by  actual  observation." 

"  Two  other  elements  of  this  astronomy,"  he  continues, 
"the  equation  of  the  sun's  centre,  and  the  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic,  when  compared  with  those  of  the  present  time, 
seem  to  point  to  a  period  of  this  astronomy  1000  or  1200 
years  earlier,  (that  is  4300  years  before  the  Christian  era,) 
and  the  time  necessary  to  have  brought  the  arts  of  calcu- 


372  INDIAN   ASTRONOMICAL  TABLES. 

lating  and  observing1,  to  such  perfection  as  they  must  have 
been,  at  the  period  spoken  of,  comes  in  support  of  the  same 
conclusion." 

Thus,  on  the  authority  of  Professor  Playfair,  it  was  es- 
tablished that  the  Hindoo  period  called  Caly-youg,  being 
3102  years  before  the  Christian  era,  was  the  epoch  at 
which  these  calculations  were  made;  then  other  elements 
point  to  a  period  1200  years  before  this,  making  in  all 
4300  before  the  Christian  era,  so  that  the  astronomical 
calculations  of  these  heathen  philosophers,  extended  to  a 
period  nearly  300  years  before  the  creation  of  the  sun,  and 
moon,  and  planets,  according  to  Moses.* 

All  this  was  proved  by  one  of  the  first  mathematicians 
of  the  age,  for  Professor  Playfair  had  made  himself  re- 
sponsible for  the  truth  and  accuracy  of  the  Indian  cal- 
culations, as  well  as  for  the  period  at  which  they  were 
made. 

These  important  conclusions,  solemnly  announced  from 
the  mathematical  chair  of  Edinburgh,  gave  them  a  degree 
of  consequence  and  authority  in  the  estimation  of  the 
world,  proportionate  to  the  high  source  whence  they 
came. 

Few  persons  could  follow  the  professor  through  the 
calculations  from  which  these  demonstrations  had  been 
deduced ;  and  fewer  still,  thought  of  making  public  oppo- 
sition to  such  authority. 

Thus,  infidels  believing  their  cause  now  settled  on  a 
foundation  that  could  not  be  moved,  thought  and  spoke 
of  Moses  and  his  history  with  the  utmost  contempt ;  while 
many  Christians,  believing  that,  at  least,  some  truth  had 
emanated  from  such  a  source,  and  being  unable  to  bring 
any  thing  but  the  naked  word  of  inspiration,  against 
what  were  considered  mathematical  deductions,  were 
happy  when  they  could  avoid  all  religious  discussions 
with  those  who,  at  the  onset,  were  ready  to  prove  that 
the  very  foundation  of  their  faith  was  wanting. 

*  This  estimate  is  founded,  as  above  stated,  on  the  Hebrew  chro- 
nology, which  gives  4004  years  from  the  creation  to  the  incarna- 
tion. It  is,  however,  but  fair  for  the  reader  to  remember,  that  the 
Constantinopolitan  chronology  makes  5504  years  between  these 
events,  and  that  Josephus  makes  the  same  period  to  con  sist  of  5200 
years.  If  we  adopt  either  of  these  periods,  the  calculations  of 
Flayfair  do  not  extend  beyond  the  time  of  the  creation. 


INDIAN  ASTRONOMICAL  TABLES.  373 

But  whether  the  Mosaic  record  remained  true  or  false, 
it  is  certain  that  the  demonstrations  of  Professor  Playfair 
did  not  destroy  the  verity  of  all  Scripture,  since  the  truth 
of  that  declaration,  "a  kingdom  divided  against  itself  can- 
not stand,"  was  confirmed  and  illustrated  in  his  own  case, 
as  the  event  will  prove.  Laplace,  the  French  astronomer, 
who  was  contemporaneous  with  Playfair,  and  on  whose 
high  attainments  the  professor  had  pronounced  a  splendid 
panegyric, — Laplace  himself,  the  lover  and  patron  of  infi- 
delity, was  destined  to  become  the  agent  by  whom  Moses 
and  the  prophets  were  delivered  from  obloquy  and  con- 
tempt; and  by  which  it  was  demonstrated,  that  notwith- 
standing the  existence  of  the  Hindoo  tables,  and  the  opin- 
ion of  the  Edinburgh  professor,  the  Scriptures  might  still 
be  a  revelation  from  Heaven. 

"Every  thing,"  says  Laplace,  "leads  us  to  conclude 
that  they  [the  Hindoo  tables]  are  not  of  high  antiquity. 
They  have  two  principal  epochs,  which  go  back,  one  to 
the  year  3102,  and  the  other  to  1491  years  before  the 
Christian  era.  These  are  linked  together  by  the  mean 
movements  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets,  so  that  one  of 
the  epochs  are  necessarily  fictitious."  "  In  fact,"  he  con- 
tinues, "  if  we  assume  for  our  point  of  departure,  the  epoch 
1491,  and  go  back,  by  means  of  the  Indian  tables,  to  the 
year  3102,  before  the  Christian  era,  we  obtain  a  general 
conjunction  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets,  as  these  tables 
suppose;  but  this  conjunction  differs  too  much  from  the 
result  of  our  best  tables  to  have  taken  place,  demonstrating1 
that  the  epoch  to  which  it  refers  is  not  grounded  on  ob- 
servation, 

"  The  tables  altogether,  and  particularly  the  impossi- 
bility of  the  conjunction  which  they  suppose  at  the  same 
epoch,  prove,  on  the  contrary,  that  they  have  been  con- 
structed, or,  at  least,  rectified  in  modern  times."* 

"  It  is  well  known,"  says  Baron  Cuvier,  "  that  M.  Bailly, 
thinking  that  the  epoch  which  is  used  as  a  period  of  de- 
parture in  some  of  the  Indian  astronomical  tables,  had 
been  really  observed,  has  attempted  thence  to  deduce  a 
proof  of  the  remote  antiquity  of  this  science  among  that 
people,  or,  at  least,  in  that  nation  which  bequeathed  its 
knowledge  to  them.  But  the  whole  of  this  system,  so  la- 


»  Book  v.  chap.  i. 


374  INDIAN  ASTRONOMICAL  TABLES. 

boriously  conceived,  falls  to  the  ground  of  itself,  now  that 
it  is  proved  that  this  epoch  was  subsequently  adopted  on 
calculations  made  backwards,  and  the  result  of  which  was 
incorrect."* 

M.  Bently  has  discovered  that  the  tables  Tivalour,  on 
which,  particularly,  the  assertion  of  Bailly  was  founded, 
must  have  been  calculated  about  1281  after  Christ,  (540 
years  since;)  and  that  the  Surya-Siddhanta,  which  the 
Brahmins  regard  as  their  most  ancient  and  scientific  trea- 
tise on  astronomy,  and  which  they  pretend  was  revealed 
more  than  twenty  millions  of  years  ago,  could  not  have 
been  composed  until  about  760  years  since. 

These  authorities  might  be  considered  sufficient  to  settle 
for  ever  the  famous  question  of  the  Indian  tables,  which, 
for  a  time,  it  is  known,  was  the  strong  hold  of  infidelity; 
and  yet  the  opinion  of  Playfair  has  been  so  widely  dis- 
seminated, and  is  contained  in  so  many  books  still  in  ex- 
istence, and  still  read,  that  we  add  one  other  authority, 
lest,  in  the  minds  of  some,  these  should  not  remove  every 
doubt. 

Delambre,  in  his  History  of  Astronomy,  writes  on  this 
subject  as  follows : 

"  The  extensive  treatise  on  Indian  Astronomy,  by  Bail- 
ly, has  been  labored  with  more  care  than  any  of  his  works. 
We  regret  only  to  remark  too  frequently  in  it,  that  spirit 
of  system  which  predominates  in  all  his  productions.  In- 
stead of  giving  an  exposition  of  the  facts,  which  may  ena- 
ble us  afterwards  to  consider  them  in  every  point  of  view, 
he  espouses  an  opinion  to  which  he  makes  every  thing 
conform.  He  renders  it  available  with  much  address,  and 
by  approximations  which  are  often  specious.  Sometimes, 
and  especially  in  his  Indian  Treatise,  he  intrenches  him- 
self behind  imposing  masses  of  calculations,  carefully  dis- 
sembling whatever  may  prove  prejudicial  to  his  cause,  as 
well  as  the  objections  that  might  be  advanced,  and  which 
he  himself  could  not  fail  to  perceive. 

"If  we  be  allowed  to  hazard  a  conjecture,  we  would 
say  that  Bailly  never  writes  but  to  prop  a  system  framed 
beforehand;  that  he  glances  slightly  over  the  writings  of 
the  ancients,  reading  them  in  bad  translations,  and  that 
he  runs  over  all  the  calculations,  in  order  to  pick  out  ob- 


*  Cuvier's  Disc.  p.  145. 


INDIAN    ASTRONOMICAL    TABLES.  375 

scure  passages  which  may  lend  some  countenance  to  his 
ideas." 

"  When  we  inquire  why  the  Indians  chose  the  remote 
and  fictitious  epoch  of  Caly-youg,  or  misfortune,  we  per- 
ceive, in  the  first  place,  that  it  was  from  national  vanity ; 
and  in  the  next,  that  they  might  make  all  the  planets  start 
from  one  point,  a  conjunction  which  their  method  of  cal- 
culation required.  If  we  further  ask,  why  they  adopted 
a  complicated  method  which  employs  divisions  and  multi- 
plications of  enormous  numbers,  with  so  many  additions, 
subtractions,  reductions,  and  different  precepts,  the  answer 
is,  that  they  did  not  wish  for  written  tables ;  they  wanted 
numbers  which  could  be  put  into  technical  verses,  even 
into  songs,  so  that  the  calculations  might  be  performed 
without  writing  a  book.  These  facts,  now  well  known, 
through  the  labors  of  the  Asiatic  Society,  are  alone  suffi- 
cient to  subvert  the  whole  system  of  Bailly." 

"  Mr.  Playfair,  in  the  4th  k  volume  of  the  Edin.  Phil. 
Trans,  has  spoken  of  the  Indian  table  of  signs,  believing  it 
to  be  very  ancient.  Consequently  he  is  not  surprised  at 
finding  no  tangents  in  it,  which  were  unknown  in  Europe 
till  the  16th  century.  But  as  the  idea  of  them  is  very 
clearly  expounded  in  the  work  of  Albategni ;  and  as,  in 
the  13th  century,  we  find  tables  of  tangents  calculated  by 
the  Arabs,  we  need  not  wonder  if  they  should  be  found  in 
the  Surya-Siddhanta,  whose  date  is  now  known  to  be 
more  ancient.  The  Professor  is  astonished  at  seeing 
versed  sines  among  the  Indians;  but  his  memory  has  be- 
trayed him,  when  he  asserts  that  the  Arabs  did  not  know 
them.  He  acknowledges  that  the  Indians  have  not  ac- 
tually demonstrated  either  of  the  processes  which  they 
point  out  for  these  calculations.  I  would  be  tempted  to 
believe  that  they  were  ignorant  of  these  demonstrations ; 
if  they  had  known  the  principle,  their  table  would  have 
been  probably  a  little  better.  Mr.  Playfair  has  not  calcu- 
lated it  anew,  he  has  not  even  had  the  discernment  to  per- 
ceive the  error  of  the  division,  225  substituted,  probably 
by  an  error  of  the  copy,  for  the  true  divisor  235.  5." 

Thus,  at  the  touch  of  truth,  vanished  the  most  specious, 
and  apparently  the  most  solid  foundation  for  infidelity 
that  modern  times  have  afforded  ;  and  thus  did  Moses  and 
his  history  triumph  over  the  vain  pretensions  of  the 
Hindoos,  combined  with  the  demonstrations  of  one  of  the 
first  mathematicians  of  Europe.  And,  it  is  not  a  little 


S76  EGYPTIAN    ZODIACS. 

gratifying  to  the  friends  of  the  Bible,  that  the  "  pure  and 
unbroken  light  which  is  free  from  the  false  coloring  of 
vanity  and  superstition"  was  thus  freed  from  contempt 
and  derision,  not  by  the  guardians  of  religion,  but  by  those 
who  were  searching  for  truth  solely  in  honor  of  the  sci- 
ences, and  who  would  (at  least  some  of  them)  have  rather 
the  error  had  fallen  against  Moses,  than  against  the  Indian 
Astronomy. 


EGYPTIAN    ZODIACS. 

"  No  sooner,"  says  the  Rev.  Mr.  Conybeare,  "has  any 
new  discovery,  whatever  might  have  been  its  subject,  oc- 
curred, (whether  it  was  a  fragment  of  Indian  Chronology, 
or  an  Egyptian  Zodiac,  or  the  mechanism  of  the  Universe, 
or  that  of  living  bodies,  or  lastly  some  new  fact  relating 
to  the  structure  of  the  earth,)  than  the  first  aspect  under 
which  some  minds  have  seemed  anxious  to  view  it,  has 
been,  whether  it  would  not  furnish  some  new  weapon 
against  Revelation."* 

Recent  history,  especially  that  department  which  re- 
lates to  the  sciences,  constantly  affirms  the  truth  of  the 
above  observation.  In  no  age  have  the  advocates  for  un- 
belief sought  after  new  resources,  with  so  much  eagerness, 
as  during  the  present.  The  mighty  movements  of  the 
Christian  world,  have  not  only  shown  a  determination  to 
spread  the  truths  of  the  gospel,  where  they  are  still  un- 
known, but  also  to  remove  from  herself,  as  far  as  possible, 
every  taint  of  irreligion.  The  light  of  science,  and  a 
more  general  knowledge  of  the  Bible,  have  long  since 
thrown  all  the  ancient  systems  of  infidelity  into  oblivion. 
Even  those  which  were  in  fashion  thirty  years  ago  are 
now  obsolete ;  so  that  the  errors  and  the  authors  against 
which  Dr.  Dwight  warned  his  Baccalaureate  in  about 
1800,  are  such  as  young  men  are  in  little  danger  from  at 
the  present  day.  The  world  is  too  far  advanced  in  know- 
ledge, to  be  caught  by  commonplace  arguments  against 
religion.  All  this  is  well  known  to  the  infidel  ranks  in 
every  part  of  Christendom,  and  hence  they  see  the  ne- 
cessity of  looking  among  the  higher  branches  of  know 
ledge  for  new  weapons. 

*  Conybeare  and  Phillips'  Geo.  Int.  p.  50. 


EGYPTIAN    ZODIACS.  377 

The  progress  of  the  sciences  has  lately  afforded  these 
men  their  chief  hopes,  and  already  several  high  attempts 
have  been  issued  from  this  quarter.  Among  these  the 
Systeme  des  Animaux  sans  Vertebres,  and  the  "Hydro- 
geologie"  from  one  hand,  and  the  Expose  du  Systeme 
du  Monde,  from  another,  stands  conspicuous. 

Meantime,  Egypt,  that  country  of  wonders  and  of  an- 
tiquities, of  which  no  one  could  tell  the  origin  or  date, 
has  been  for  a  long  period  looked  upon  as  a  most  proba- 
ble source,  whence  some  strong  proof  against  revelation 
would  come ;  and  from  time  to  time  it  has  been  asserted, 
that  monuments  had  been  there  discovered,  which,  could 
their  antiquities  be  known,  would  undoubtedly,  as  counter 
truths,  go  far  to  destroy  the  influence  of  the  Bible.  But 
the  language  of  the  Egyptians  being  unknown,  was  the 
excuse  for  not  proving  to  the  world  the  antiquity  of  these 
monuments,  and  thus  doing  away  at  once,  all  ground  of 
religious  prejudice  and  superstition  among  men. 

It  was  not,  however,  until  Egypt  was  occupied  by  the 
army  of  Napoleon,  that  monuments  which  appeared  to 
offer  any  great  available  promise  for  such  a  purpose, 
were  discovered,  and  these  were  the  famous  Egyptian 
Zodiacs,  which  for  a  time  occupied  the  almost  entire  at- 
tention of  all  the  antiquaries,  and  many  of  the  learned 
men  of  Europe. 

There  were  two  of  these  Zodiacs,  one  of  which  occupi- 
ed the  place  of  a  ceiling  in  a  temple  at  Dendera,  in  Upper 
Egypt,  and  the  other  a  corresponding  situation  in  a  temple 
at  Esne,  the  ancient  Latopolis.  At  the  latter  place  indeed 
there  were  two,  in  different  temples,  one  of  which,  how- 
ever, was  of  a  small  size,  and  of  which  it  is  unnecessary 
to  take  further  notice. 

These  works  were  supposed  by  many  learned  men,  to 
afford  the  most  conclusive  evidence,  (on  what  ground  will 
be  seen  directly,)  that  no  history  yet  known,  had  recorded 
the  true  epoch  of  the  creation  of  man  ;  and  not  a  few 
writers  exulted  in  the  belief,  that  at  last,  reason  and  sci- 
ence had  triumphed,  and  that  now  the  minds  of  men  were 
no  longer  to  be  held  in  religious  bondage. 

The  Egyptian  Zodiacs  present  the  same  figures  that 
are  employed  to  represent  the  several  constellations  at 
the  present  day,  but  are  arranged  in  a  right  manner,  and 
are  engraved  in  wood  and  painted.  That  of  Dendera  is 
the  most  perfect.  This  temple  faces  the  north. 
32* 


378  EGYPTIAN    ZODIACS. 

Here  the  sign  of  the  Lion  heads  the  band ;  he  is  direct- 
ing his  course  towards  the  north,  and  has  his  feet  towards 
the  eastern  wall.  The  Virgin,  the  Balance,  the  Scorpion, 
the  Archer,  and  the  Capricorn,  follow  in  the  same  line. 
But  it  is  needless  to  describe  what  cannot  be  understood 
without  drawings. 

The  force  of  the  argument  for  the  antiquity  of  this 
monument,  consisted  in  the  supposition,  that  the  peculiar 
distribution  of  these  figures  represented  the  exact  state,  or 
relative  positions  of  the  constellations,  with  respect  to 
each  other,  at  the  time  when  it  was  constructed,  and  that 
by  astronomical  calculations  made  backward,  from  the 
present  state  of  the  constellations,  it  could  be  ascertained 
at  what  period  they  were  actually  in  the  position  repre- 
sented by  this  Zodiac,  and  thus  the  period  of  its  construc- 
tion would  be  known. 

Figures  of  the  Zodiacs  were  first  published  by  the  ac- 
complished Denon,  in  his  work  on  Egypt,  and  it  appears 
that  the  subject  excited  the  most  intense  interest  among 
learned  men  of  Europe,  and  particularly  of  France. 

"  The  Zodiacs,"  says  M.  Greppo,*  "  were  immediately 
published,  and  commented  upon  with  more  or  less  good 
faith  and  decorum.  Science  struck  out  into  systems  very 
bold  ;  and  the  spirit  of  infidelity,  seizing  upon  the  discove- 
ry, flattered  itself  with  the  hope  of  drawing  from  it  new 
support." 

It  was  said  that  the  Zodiacs  exhibited  the  state  of  the 
heavens  at  the  most  remote  periods,  and  that  it  was  possi- 
ble, from  present  data,  to  show  when  that  period  was. 
Accordingly,  calculations  of  great  prolixity  and  abstruse- 
ness  were  instituted  to  prove,  what  before  had  been  as- 
sumed, namely,  that  these  monuments  were  constructed 
long  before  the  period  of  Scripture  chronology. 

These  calculations,  founded  on  the  sure  basis  of  mathe- 
matics, were  said  to  be  conclusive  beyond  all  controversy. 
But  a  difficulty  arose,  which,  in  the  opinion  of  truth  and 
sobriety,  threw  a  doubt  over  all  such  demonstrations. 
This  was,  that  the  philosophers  did  not  agree  among 
themselves,  as  to  the  actual  time  when  the  Zodiacs  were 
constructed,  though  several  coincided  so  far  as  to  deny  in 


*  "  Essay  on  the  Hieroglyphic  System,"  by  M.  Greppo. 


Trans- 


OYPTIAN    ZODIACS.  379 

the  most  positive  manner,  the  veracity  of  Moses.  Thus 
M.  Burkard  demonstrated  that  the  temple  of  Esne  had 
stood  7000  years,  while  M.  Nouet,  making  his  calcula- 
tions from  other  data,  afforded  by  the  same  figures,  proved 
that  this  temple  was  built  4600  years  before  the  Christian 
era,  that  is,  about  600  years  before  the  creation,  according 
to  the  Mosaic  Chronology.  M.  Dupuis,  taking  a  still 
different  view  of  the  subject,  and  making  his  demonstra- 
tions from  some  peculiar  data  which  his  learning  and  saga- 
city had  discovered,  shows,  by  calculations  through  which 
few  could  follow  him,  that  these  temples  must  have  stood 
at  least  15,000  years. 

"Although  the  sensation  which  the  Zodaical  system  of 
infidelity  produced,  was  at  first  chiefly  confined  to  men 
devoted  to  study,  there  were  many  others,  who  when  they 
understood  its  bearings,  were  ready  to  applaud  its  pre- 
tended triumphs,  so  that  intelligent,  as  well  as  pious  men, 
were  grieved  to  find  the  common  belief  of  all  Christian 
societies,  not  unfrequently  attacked  in  their  very  founda- 
tion."* 

In  the  midst  of  this  apparent  triumph  of  infidelity,  a 
circumstance  happened,  which  gave  a  new  excitement  to 
the  subject  of  the  Zodiacs.  This  was  no  less  than  the 
arrival  of  the  planisphere  of  Dendera  at  Paris. 

M.  Leloraine,  an  enterprising  young  traveller,  in  spite 
of  many  obstacles,  was  the  means  of  detaching  this  cele- 
brated monument  from  the  ceiling  of  the  temple,  and  of 
transporting  it  to  the  sea,  whence  nit  was  shipped,  and 
fin  illy  reached  Paris  in  1821. 

M.  Greppo  describes  the  intense  interest  it  there  excited. 
"An  object  of  interest,"  says  he,  "to  educated  men,  and 
of  vanity  to  those  who  thought  themselves  such,  it  could 
not  remain  unnoticed  by  the  multitude;  and  classes  of 
society,  who  knew  not  even  the  signification  of  the  term 
Zodiac,  rushed  in  crowds  to  behold  it.  In  the  journals, 
in  the  saloons,  the  Zodiac  was  the  only  topic  of  discussion. 
Have  you  seen  the  Zodiac?  What  do  you  think  of  the 
Zodiac?  were  questions,  to  which  every  one  was  seeming- 
ly compelled  to  give  a  well  informed  answer,  or  to  be 
degraded  from  a  place  in  polished  society. 


Greppo. 


380  EGYPTIAN    ZODIACS. 

The  learned  could  now  examine  the  original  instead  of 
its  representations,  and  thus  a  new  impulse  was  given  to 
the  discussions  concerning  the  Zodiac,  and  new  opinions, 
and  new  publications,  arose  in  consequence. 

These  discussions  fermented  an  unbelieving  spirit,  even 
among  those  classes  which  had  never  before  arrayed 
themselves  against  the  truths  of  revelation.  Rash  and 
unfounded  opinions  were  hazarded ;  the  infidelity  of  Du- 
puis,  who  had  made  the  world  15,000  years  old,  was 
spread  abroad  in  Paris,  by  means  of  small  tracts,  and  thus 
the  minds  of  multitudes  partook  of  the  poison. 

At  this  moment,  as  though  an  antidote  to  the  virus  of 
infidelity  had  descended  from  heaven,  there  arrived  in 
Paris,  that  celebrated  antiquary,  Champollion,  the  young- 
er, from  a  visit  to  Egypt.  This  young  man  had  just  be- 
fore solved  the  great  secret  of  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics, 
and  having  examined  the  Zodiac  before  its  removal  from 
Dendera,  he  had  there  deciphered,  not  only  the  inscrip- 
tions which  it  contained,  but  also  several  others,  inscribed 
on  several  parts  of  the  temple  itself. 

Armed  with  this  great  discovery,  he  was  enabled  to 
reveal  the  truth  concerning  these  wonderful  monuments, 
nnd  thus  to  dispel  the  dark  cloud  of  skepticism,  which 
seemed  destined  to  spread  from  the  French  capital  to  all 
parts  of  the  world. 

The  title  on  the  Zodiac  consisted  of  the  following  let- 
ters, viz. :  A  O  T  K  P  T  P.  These,  with  certain  letters, 
interspersed  according  to  the  rule  discovered  by  Cham- 
pollion, form  the  Greek  word  for  Emperor.  Besides 
this,  he  discovered,  in  the  temple  of  Dendera,  the  names, 
titles,  and  surnames  of  the  Emperors,  Tiberius,  Claudius, 
Nero,  and  Domitian,  and  upon  the  portico  of  Esne,  whose 
Zodiac  had  been  judged  many  centuries  older  than  that  of 
Dendera,  he  read  the  names"  of  Claudius  and  Antoninus 
Pius.* 

Here,  then,  the  entire  substratum  of  the  Zodiacal  system 
of  infidelity  was  crumbled  into  dust,  and  the  fabric,  which 
had  been  erected  upon  it  with  so  much  zeal  and  confi- 
dence, fell  at  once  upon  its  builders,  and  covered  them  with 
shame  and  confusion. 

And  here,  again,  it  may  be  remarked,  (as  was  the  case 


*  Smart's  Greppo,  p.  184. 


BEDS  OF  LAVA  AT  ETNA.  381 

with  the  Hindoo  tables,)  that  the  facts  were  not  brought 
to  light  by  those  whose  especial  duty  and  interest  it  is  to 
defend  the  truths  of  revelation;  but  by  one  who  had  gone 
forward  of  his  species  in  the  science  of  philology;  a  cir- 
cumstance of  great  interest  and  consequence,  in  both  cases, 
since  infidelity  can  never  claim,  that,  in  these  instances,  its 
cause  has  been  crushed  by  the  undue  influence  of  "pre- 
judice or  superstition"  upon  the  world. 

It  is  only  necessary  to  state,  in  concluding  this  subject, 
that  the  Egyptian  Zodiacs  have  no  greater  antiquity  than 
the  Roman  domination  of  Egypt,  which  commenced  one 
or  two  centuries  after  the  Christian  era ;  and  that  these 
signs  do  not,  in  any  respect,  relate  to  astronomy,  but  are 
connected  with  the  idle  phantasies  of  judicial  astrology. 
The  figures,  therefore,  which  were  so  lately  and  confi- 
dently expected  to  revolutionize  the  Christian  world,  and 
reduce  it  to  heathenism,  are  nothing  more  than  what 
adepts  in  the  pretended  science  of  astronomy,  call  themes 
of  nativity. 

And  now,  what  reader  does  not  see  especial  marks  of 
Divine  Superintendence,  in  the  circumstance,  that  the  so- 
lution of  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  (which  had  been  a 
principal  object  among  antiquaries  and  learned  men  for 
centuries,)  should  have  been  discovered,  just  at  a  moment 
to  destroy  one  of  the  most  specious  systems  of  infidelity 
ever  offered  to  the  world  ? 


BEDS    OF    LAVA    AT    ETNA. 

"  I  have,"  says  Dr.  Ure,  "  met  with  persons  of  consid- 
erable pretensions  to  candor  and  sagacity,  who,  having 
devoured,  with  greedy  eyes,  the  story  told  by  Brydone,  in 
his  Sicilian  Tour,  about  the  canon  Recupero,  conceive 
that  it  justifies  them  in  reviling  the  chronology  and  cha- 
racter of  Moses."* 

This  popular  book  has  been  very  extensively  read  in 
this  country,  and  it  is  believed,  that  even  at  this  day,  the 
beds  of  lava  at  Etna,  are  often  brought  forward  to  prove 
that  there  is  no  truth  in  the  Mosaic  Chronology.  It  is  for 


*  Geol.  Int.  p.  14. 


382  BEDS  OF  LAVA  AT  ETNA. 

this  reason  that  we  here  state  the  circumstances  as  they 
are  said  to  have  occurred.  With  respect  to  the  beds  of 
lava,  Brydone  pretends  to  publish  the  opinions  of  the 
canon  Recupero,  who  lived  in  the  neighborhood,  and  who, 
it  is  stated,  was  a  competent  judge  in  such  matters. 

This  man,  of  undoubted  piety,  of  great  simplicity  of 
life,  and  well  known  for  his  hospitality,  is  made  to  say, 
that,  in  his  opinion,  a  bed  of  lava  requires  2000  years  ex- 
posure to  the  weather,  in  order  to  undergo  sufficient  de- 
composition to  form  a  soil  of  a  certain  thickness.  On 
examination,  it  was  found,  that  Etna  afforded  seven  beds 
of  lava,  with  a  thickness  of  soil  between  each,  equal  to 
that  which  the  canon  had  said  could  only  have  been 
formed  in  2000  years.  By  this  mode  of  calculation,  it 
was  therefore  proved  that  the  first  eruption,  in  this  series, 
must  have  been  14,000  years  ago,  and  there  would,  of 
course,  be  reason  to  suppose,  that  the  mountain  itself 
might  be  much  older  than  the  first  bed  of  lava. 

The  manner  in  which  this  attempt  to  raise  doubts,  with 
respect  to  the  veracity  of  Moses,  was  received,  shows  with 
what  avidity  certain  characters  catch  hold  of  any  thing, 
which  looks  like  a  weapon  against  religion ;  and,  also, 
how  willing  many  people  are  to  be  deceived,  when  a  lie 
suits  them  better  than  the  truth. 

This  simple  story,  which  no  man  of  common  sense 
would  have  taken  as  testimony  in  the  smallest  matter  of 
science  or  business,  was  immediately  brought  forward 
and  published  to  the  world,  as  presenting  the  most  posi- 
tive facts,  in  evidence,  that  the  Bible  was  not  true ;  and 
although  it  has  long  since  been  proved,  that  there  never 
existed  the  least  foundation  for  such  an  inference,  it  is 
still  employed  to  the  ignorant  as  an  argument  against  the 
Bible,  and  by  some  is  considered  as  good  evidence  even 
to  this  day. 

The  truth  appears  to  be,  that  what  Brydone  believed, 
or  pretended  to  believe,  was  decomposed  lava,  was  pro- 
bably what  geologists  call  volcanic  tufa,  or  volcanic 
ashes,  either  of  which  might  have  covered  the  surface  of 
the  lava  current,  a  foot  or  two  in  depth,  in  a  few  hours, 
instead  of  its  requiring  2000  years,  as  he  makes  the  canon 
to  suppose. 

That  no  estimate  of  time  can  be  made  from  any  such 
circumstance,  is  proved  by  observations  on  other  beds  of 
lava. 


BEDS    OF    LA*A    At    ETNA.  385 

"  Some  of  the  lavas  of  Auvergne,"  says  Daubuisson, 
"have  maintained  an  entire  surface,  all  over  blistered, 
and  bristling  with  asperities,  whose  edges  and  angles  are 
still  sharp,  and  well  preserved.  We  might  even  imagine 
these  lava  streams  to  have  just  flowed  from  the  bowels  of 
the  earth,  and  that  they  had  hardly  had  time  to  cool.  It 
is,  however,  probable,  that  these  lavas  have  lain  on  the 
soil  of  Auvergne  for  3000  years,  exposed  to  the  action  of 
the  elements." 

On  the  contrary,  Sir  William  Hamilton  has  shown  that 
over  the  matter  which  buried  Herculaneum,  there  are  six 
streams  of  lava  with  veins  of  good  soil  bettcecn  them.  Now, 
Herculaneum  was  destroyed  about  1800  years  ago,  which 
shows  that  veins  of  good  soil  have  there  been  formed  in 
300  years,  instead  of  2000,  as  estimated  by  Brydone. 
Here  we  see,  that  in  one  case,  no  soil  was  formed  in 
3000  years,  while  in  another,  veins  of  some  thickness 
were  formed  in  one  tenth  of  that  time  ;  which  proves  most 
clearly,  that  no  inference  can  be  drawn  with  respect  to  the 
age  of  the  lava,  from  the  state  of  its  surface. 

Mr.  Daubeny,  an  experienced  observer,  has  recently 
visited  the  famous  pit  at  Aci  Reale,  on  which  the  Scottish 
traveller  made  the  canon  to  speculate,  and  of  which  he 
speaks  as  follows  : — 

"  At  all  events,  Brydone  has  been  grossly  deceived,  in 
imagining  that  the  seven  beds  of  lava  seen  lying  one 
above  the  other,  near  the  spot,  have  been  sufficiently  de- 
composed into  vegetable  mould ;  the  substance  which 
really  intervenes  between  the  beds,  being  nothing  more 
than  a  sort  of  ferruginous  tuf£  just  similar  to  what  would 
be  produced  by  a  shower  of  volcanic  ashes,  such  as 
naturally  precedes,  or  follows,  an  eruption  of  lava,  mixed 
up  with  mud  or  consolidated  by  rain."* 

On  the  same  subject,  Dolomieu,  a  distinguished  min- 
eralogist, says,  "  The  canon  Recupero  deserves  neither 
the  praises  which  have  been  bestowed  on  his  science,  nor 
the  doubts  which  have  been  raised  concerning  his  ortho- 
doxy. He  died  without  any  other  affliction,  than  that 
which  was  caused  to  him  by  the  work  of  Brydone.  He 
could  not  conceive  for  what  purpose  this  stranger,  to 
whom  he  had  rendered  services,  endeavored  to  excite  sus- 


*  Edinburgh  Phil.  Jour.  vol.  xiii.  p.  26C. 


884  BEDS  OF  LAVA  AT  ETNA. 

picions  concerning  the  orthodoxy  of  his  faith.  This  sim- 
ple man,  very  religious,  and  attached  to  the  faith  of  his 
forefathers,  was  far  from  admitting,  as  an  evidence  against 
the  book  of  Genesis,  pretended  facts  which  are  false,  but 
from  which,  even  if  they  had  been  true,  nothing  could  have 
been  concluded.  Vegetable  earths  between  the  beds  of 
lava  do  not  exist ;  and  the  argil' aceous  earths,  which  are 
sometimes  found  between  them,  may  have  been  disposed 
there,  by  causes  totally  independent  of  the  antiquity  of 
Etna/' 


We  are  not  a  little  surprised  to  find  that  Mr.  Faber,  au- 
thor of  that  learned  work,  the  "  Three  Dispensations,"  has 
so  magnified  the  story  of  the  lava  beds  at  Etna,  as  to  make 
out  of  it  one  of  his  arguments  for  extending  the  days  of 
Genesis  to  periods  of  6000  years.  (See  an  Epitome  of 
his  Theory,  p.  319.) 

"  The  extension,"  says  he,  "  of  the  six  demiurgic  days 
into  six  very  long  periods,  most  effectually  nullifies  the  in- 
fidel objection,  drawn  from  the  ancient  eruptions  of  Mount 
Etna." 

After  describing  the  lava  beds  and  strata  of  earth  be- 
tween them,  Mr.  Faber  allows  the  infidel  the  full  benefit 
of  this  argument,  and  even  more.  He  may,  if  he  pleases, 
date  an  eruption  30,000  years  before  the  creation  of  man. 
"  What  then,"  says  the  author,  "  does  such  a  concession 
at  all  tend  to  disprove  the  Scriptural  chronology  of  man's 
formation.  Most  assuredly  not :  for.  if  the  six  demiurgic 
days  each  exceed  a  term  of  six  thousand  years,  we  shall 
have  quite  time  enough  for  the  eruption,  even  prior  to  the 
formation  of  man,  without  there  being  any  need  to  impugn 
the  Scriptural  authority  of  that  event."  Vol.  i.  p.  159. 
London,  1823. 

We  cannot  but  hope  Mr.  Faber  has  since  discovered, 
that  the  ground  of  this  argument  no  longer  exists,  and 
also,  that  there  may  be  danger  in  disseminating  the  ac- 
count, since  it  is  possible  some  of  his  readers  may  believe 
the  facts  concerning  the  beds,  without  recognising  the 
counteracting  force  of  his  arguments. 

;:'* 


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